Northeast Russia- a term adopted in modern historiography to refer to a group of Russian principalities in the interfluve of the Volga and Klyazma in the 9th-15th centuries, which formed the core of the modern Russian state. In the strict sense - the territory of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. In a broad sense, in contrast to Southwestern Russia and Lithuania, also the territories of the Ryazan, Murom, Smolensk and part of the Verkhovsky principalities dependent on it.

Variants of terms

Along with the name "North-Eastern Russia", synonymous terms are used in the literature. For the period of IX-XI centuries. Rostov land, in XI - ser. XII centuries Rostov-Su Zdal Principality, from ser. XII - ser. XIII Vladimiro-Su Zdal Principality, from ser. XIII- Grand Duchy of Vlady Mirskoe. The names found in the sources are: Su zdal land, Zala land, Hall sie(that is, what was "beyond the forest" in relation to the Kiev lands); in the Novgorod chronicle - lower land.

As part of Kievan Rus

At the end of the first millennium A.D. e. the Finno-Ugric tribes Merya and Ves lived here. In the Tale of Bygone Years, under the year 859, there is a message that Merya paid tribute to the Varangians. In the 9th-10th centuries, peaceful Slavic colonization took place (no traces of violence were found) mainly by the Krivichi, Ilmen Slovenes and Vyatichi with a small participation of the Scandinavians (Varangians and Normans). The last mention of Mary refers to 907, then this territory is referred to by the main cities as Rostov, and later - Rostov-Suzdal land, that is, the tribal division is replaced by territorial.

The first of the cities that arose in Zalesye was Rostov, which was mentioned in the annals as early as 862. In 911, Rostov was named among the five largest cities subject to the Kiev prince Oleg. First Novgorod princes, and after 882 Kiev princes sent governors here. From 913 to 988 the annals say nothing about the Rostov land.

In 991, the Rostov diocese was established - one of the oldest in Russia. The first prince of Rostov was Vladimir's son Yaroslav the Wise at the turn of the 10th-11th centuries.

According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, Rostov, along with other cities of North-Eastern Russia, became the property of his son, Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich of Pereyaslav, where he sent governors. The separation of the principality occurred during the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky (1113-1157). In 1125 he moved the capital of his possessions to Suzdal.

grand duchy

In 1155, Yuri's son Andrei Bogolyubsky left South Russia from his father, along with the Vyshgorod icon of the Mother of God, to Vladimir, which he chose as his residence. The plan of Yuri Dolgoruky, according to which his older sons were to gain a foothold in the south, and the younger ones to rule in Rostov and Suzdal, remained unrealized. In 1169 Andrei Yurievich organized a successful campaign against Kyiv, but for the first time in ancient Russian practice he did not rule there, but left his younger brother Gleb as governor. In the historiography of the 18th-19th centuries and in modern popular literature, this episode is interpreted as the transfer of the capital of Russia from Kyiv to Vladimir, although, according to modern ideas, this process was lengthy and finally ended after the Mongol invasion. According to Klyuchevsky V. O., Andrey "separated seniority from place." Andrey's seniority was recognized in all Russian lands, except for Chernigov and Galich. In 1157, when, after the death of Yuri Dolgoruky, Izyaslav Davydovich occupied the throne of Kyiv, the Principality of Pereyaslav separated from Kyiv and basically remained under the control of the Vladimir princes. Andrei strove to liken Vladimir to Kiev (in particular, in large-scale architectural construction, having built the Assumption Cathedral) and even try to establish a separate metropolis in his principality. During his reign, North-Eastern Russia was formed as a new center for the unification of Russian lands and the future core of the modern Russian state.

After the death of Andrei in 1174, Mstislav and Yaropolk Rostislavich, supported by the princes of Smolensk and Ryazan, tried to seize power in the principality, the children of the eldest son Yuri Dolgoruky, who died before his father and therefore did not rule, but in the end they had to obey their uncles Mikhail Yuryevich and Vsevolod Yuryevich The Big Nest, supported by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich Chernigov. The reign of Vsevolod Yurievich (1176-1212) was the heyday of North-Eastern Russia. His seniority was recognized in all Russian lands, except for Chernigov and Polotsk. The Ryazan princes paid dearly for helping his opponents: from the end of the 12th century, their lands began to be subjected to periodic Vladimir interventions and became dependent on the Vladimir principality.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the Rostov-Suzdal diocese was divided into Rostov and Vladimir-Suzdal (in the 14th century it was transformed into Suzdal).

The princes of North-Eastern Russia, beginning with Yuri Dolgoruky, tried to bring Novgorod under their control, using its dependence on the supply of food from the Suzdal Opole, with varying success, until finally, in 1231, representatives of the Vladimir princely house asserted the right to represent themselves in Novgorod for a whole century. Chroniclers even began to use a new phrase Grand reign of Vladimir and Veliky Novgorod. After the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, the Smolensk princes managed to successfully intervene in the struggle for the reign of Vladimir between his children (the Battle of Lipitsk 1216), taking advantage of the struggle of the younger Vsevolodovichs for influence in Novgorod, but soon the Vladimir princes led the fight against the crusaders in the northern Baltic, and after the defeat of the Smolensk princes and their allies in the Battle of Kalka (1223) again strengthened their positions in Russia.

In 1226-1231 there was a clash with the Chernigov Principality. Oleg Kursky was forced to renounce his claims under pressure from the Vladimir troops in favor of the brother-in-law of Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky, Mikhail of Chernigov, and then Mikhail himself had to renounce the Novgorod reign under military pressure.

After Yaroslav Vsevolodovich intervened in the struggle for Kyiv in 1236 and planted Vsevolod Mstislavich in Smolensk in 1239, as well as as a result of repeated Vladimir campaigns against Lithuania (the battle of Usvyat 1225, 1235, 1239, 1245, 1248), the Grand Duchy of Smolensk turned out to be dependent on Vladimirsky.

In February 1238, North-Eastern Russia was devastated during the Mongol-Tatar invasion after the defeat of the combined Russian forces in the battle of Kolomna. 14 cities were burned, including Vladimir, Moscow, Suzdal, Rostov, Dmitrov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Tver. On March 4, 1238, the detachment of the temnik Burundai was able to destroy the army newly recruited by Vladimir Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich in the parking lot on the City River, Yuri himself died. After the death of Yuri and all his offspring, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, who arrived from Kyiv (1238), became the prince of Vladimir.

Mongol-Tatar yoke

In 1243, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was summoned to the Horde and recognized by the Mongols as the oldest among all Russian princes (“ grow old with all the prince in the Russian language"). This was a formal act of recognition of the dependence of North-Eastern Russia on the Mongols. The strengthening of the position of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir after the Mongol invasion, along with this, was also facilitated by the fact that they did not participate in the large-scale South Russian civil strife before him, that the principality, until the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, did not have common borders with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was expanding into Russian lands. Regular exploitation of the lands of the great reign of Vladimir began after the 1257 census. In 1259, Alexander Nevsky contributed to the census in Novgorod, which was not devastated during the Mongol invasion, thereby strengthening his own positions in it.

In 1262, Tatar tribute collectors were killed in Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, Pereyaslavl, Yaroslavl and other cities. The punitive campaign was prevented by the Grand Duke of Vladimir Alexander Nevsky, who went to the Golden Horde, but he died on the way home in 1263.

Alexander Nevsky was the last prince to reign directly in Vladimir. After his death, North-Eastern Russia broke up into a dozen and a half actually independent specific principalities: Galich, Gorodetsky, Dmitrov, Kostroma, Moscow, Pereyaslav, Rostov, Starodub, Suzdal, Tver, Uglich, Yuriev, Yaroslavl. One of the specific princes received, according to the khan's label, the great reign of Vladimir, which provided him with an advantage over the others and gave formal supremacy. The right to a great reign was assigned to the offspring of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (the descendants of Yaroslav's elder brother Konstantin Vsevolodovich ruled in Rostov, Yaroslavl and Uglich and did not claim to be a great reign). In fact, all the great princes were directly subordinate to the khans, first of the Mongol Empire, and from 1266 of the Golden Horde, independently collected tribute in their possessions and forwarded it to the khan. The first Vladimir prince who did not move to the capital was Yaroslav Yaroslavich of Tverskoy. Under him, the Tver diocese was founded.

During the reign of Dmitry Alexandrovich, when his younger brother Andrei acted as a contender for the great reign, and Dmitry's ally was the temnik Nogai, who had become isolated from the Saray khans, there were three new devastating invasions in 1281, 1282 and 1293.

In 1299 the residence of the Metropolitan of All Russia was transferred to Vladimir (the transfer of the cathedra was approved by the Patriarchal Council of 1354). After that, for the first time in history, a special Galician metropolis was formed from the Metropolis of All Russia, which, as part of the Vladimir, Przemysl, Lutsk, Turov and Kholm dioceses, existed intermittently until 1347.

In 1302, the Pereyaslavl-Zalessky principality was bequeathed by the childless Ivan Dmitrievich to Daniil Alexandrovich of Moscow, but after receiving a label for the great Vladimir principality by Mikhail of Tver, it became part of the great reign. Michael, the first of the Vladimir princes called "the prince of all Russia", by force brought his governors to Novgorod (temporarily) and defeated Yuri Danilovich of Moscow and the Horde in the Battle of Bortenev (1317), but was soon killed in the Horde.

Prince of Tver Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes killed Yuri of Moscow in front of the Khan (1325). In 1326, the Metropolitan of All Russia moved from Vladimir to Moscow. After Alexander Mikhailovich Tversky concluded an agreement with Novgorod in 1327, Tver was defeated by the Horde, Muscovites of Ivan Danilovich Kalita and Suzdal of Alexander Vasilyevich.

In 1341, the great princedom of Vladimir was divided: Nizhny Novgorod and Gorodets were transferred to the Suzdal princes, who from then on began to be titled as “great”. After an unsuccessful attempt by Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal to establish himself in the great princedom of Vladimir (1359-1363), it constantly belonged to the Moscow princes, who also began to be titled "great".

The reign of Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow includes the unsuccessful attempts of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd to take Moscow and Mikhail Alexandrovich of Tverskoy - to master the reign of Vladimir. In 1383, Khan Tokhtamysh recognized the reign of Vladimir as a hereditary possession of the Moscow princes, at the same time sanctioning the independence of the Grand Duchy of Tver. In 1389, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the great reign to his son Vasily, who in 1392 annexed the Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal Grand Duchy to his possessions.

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The strengthening of the Moscow principality led to a change in attitude towards the Tatars. The essence of this change was the transition from a policy of obedience and obedience to the Horde to a policy of struggle against it, especially since there were strife in the Golden Horde, a decline in the significance of khan power. For the period from 1360 to 1380. 14 khans changed in the Horde. But Mamai managed to temporarily eliminate the strife and concentrate power in his hands. He decided to call the Moscow prince to order and in 1378 made a trip to Russia, but the Tatar army was defeated on the Vozha River (a tributary of the Oka). After that, both sides began to prepare for a decisive battle. To this end, Mamai entered into an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello and entered into secret relations with the Ryazan prince Oleg, who was dissatisfied with the primacy of Moscow.

Despite the fact that neither Tver, nor Novgorod, nor Nizhny Novgorod took part in the fight against Mamai, Dmitry managed to create an unprecedented army, which numbered 100-150 thousand people. In this matter, the clergy provided significant assistance to the prince, first of all, the Monk Sergius of Radonezh, who, by the example of his life, “raised the fallen spirit of his native people, awakened in him confidence in himself, in his strength, breathed faith in his future” (V. O. Klyuchevsky ). Saint Sergius not only blessed Dmitry Ivanovich for the feat, but also predicted the death of Mamai, exclaiming: “Go, sir, to the filthy Polovtsy, calling on God, and the Lord God will be your helper and intercessor!” The outcome of the battle was decided by the Battle of Kulikovo, which took place on the day of the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin on September 8, 1380 on the right bank of the Don at the confluence of the Ne-Pryadva River. The battle went on for several hours. The Tatars trembled and ran. The chroniclers called the battle of Kulikovo "Mamaev's battle", and the people gave Dmitry the honorary nickname "Donskoy", with which he went down in history.

The Battle of Kulikovo was of great political and national significance. “The event consisted in this,” said V. O. Klyuchevsky, “that the people, accustomed to trembling at the mere name of a Tatar, finally gathered courage, stood up against the enslavers and not only found the courage to stand up, but also went to look for the Tatar hordes in the open steppe and there he fell on the enemies with an indestructible wall, burying them under his thousands of bones. Great was the joy in Russia, but great was the grief, as the Russian army suffered huge losses.

The battle was won, but Dmitry Donskoy failed to liberate Russia from the Mongol yoke. In 1382, the new Khan of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh, invaded the Russian regions and devastated Moscow. Dmitry had to agree to the resumption of tribute payments. And yet the dependence of the Russian lands on the Horde became more and more nominal.

Dmitry Donskoy inherited the throne of Vladimir as a fiefdom to his son Vasily I, without asking the khan's permission (label). Vasily I continued to collect Russian lands under the rule of the Moscow principality. His death marked the beginning of a long and acute political crisis that filled almost the entire reign of his son Vasily II Vasilyevich (1425-1462). The fact is that before his death, Vasily Dmitrievich blessed his 10-year-old son Vasily for a great reign. But after the death of Vasily I, his brother Yuri Dmitrievich refused to recognize the seniority of his nephew and entered the struggle for the grand throne. This struggle, which after the death of Yuri was continued by his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, had the character of a feudal war, dragged on for more than 20 years and reached extreme cruelty on both sides.

The strife was complicated by the stormy and complex relations between Basil II and the Mongols. The Tatar Khan at the very beginning recognized him as the Grand Duke, but in 1445 a large detachment of one of the Tatar khans Ulu-Mahmet broke into Moscow possessions, defeated the Russian troops and took Vasily II prisoner. The Grand Duke was released from captivity for a huge ransom. Using the discontent caused by the collection of funds for ransom, Dmitry Shemyaka in 1446 captures Vasily Vasilyevich in the Trinity Monastery and blinds him (hence the nickname Dark), and in February of the same year he occupies Moscow. However, Shemyaka was opposed by the population of Moscow, especially the clergy, headed by the Bishop of Ryazan, Jonah. Dmitry Shemyaka was forced to go to the release of Vasily the Dark, who in December 1446 enters the capital of his principality.

In addition to political civil strife, the reign of Vasily II was also shaken by church unrest. In 1431, in Moscow, they wanted to appoint Bishop Jonah as metropolitan, but the Patriarch of Constantinople appointed the Greek Isidore as metropolitan in Russia. In 1439, at the Council in Florence, a union was concluded on the unification of the Orthodox and Catholic churches with the recognition of the supreme authority of the Pope. The act of union was also signed by the Russian Metropolitan Isidore. But when he returned to Russia in the rank of Roman cardinal, the Grand Duke and the Russian clergy refused to recognize the union. Isidore was deposed, and in 1448, at a council of Russian bishops, Jonah was elected metropolitan for the first time without the knowledge of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Russian Church became autocephalous (independent).

At present, some historians believe that during the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century. alternative options for centralization could still be realized. Merchant Novgorod or the northern Galician land with its developed crafts and a significant number of free peasants, and possibly the principality of Lithuania and Russia, where the Lithuanians played a kind of role of "Varangians", could have been at the head of the unification of the ancient Russian lands. However, the victory in carrying out centralization remained with the Moscow prince Vasily II, who used the Horde as allies. In the struggle for central power, Vasily II was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church.

The end of the feudal war meant the final victory of the unifying trend around the Moscow principality. This trend was fixed, became irreversible during the reigns of Ivan III and Vasily III.

The character of Ivan III Vasilyevich was formed in a difficult environment. The childhood and adolescence of the future first sovereign of all Russia fell on the final, most dramatic stages of the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century. In the seventh year of his life, the prince was betrothed to the 4-year-old daughter of the Grand Duke of Tver. A few years later, 10-year-old Maria Tverskaya became the Grand Duchess of Moscow. At that time, they were not surprised at early marriages. Dynastic and political interests were decisive here. From childhood, Ivan Sh was taught to hike. Governors and warriors got used to looking at him as the future of their sovereign. Already at the age of 12, Ivan went on his first independent trip. Naturally, in fact, experienced governors were at the head of the troops. But formally, the prince's leadership and personal participation became a stepping stone to his political maturity. By the age of 17, he no longer formally bore the title of Grand Duke. The physical helplessness of the blind father emphasized the importance of the son. As the closest assistant to Vasily II, he took a real part in the administration of the Grand Duchy.

For the territorial definition of a group of principalities in Russia, settled between the Volga and the Oka in the 9th-12th centuries, historians adopted the term "North-Eastern Russia". It meant lands located within Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir. Synonymous terms were also applicable, reflecting the unification of state entities in different years - "Rostov-Suzdal Principality", "Vladimir-Suzdal Principality", and also "Grand Duchy of Vladimir". In the second half of the XIII century, Russia, which was called North-Eastern, actually ceases to exist - many events contributed to this.

Grand Dukes of Rostov

All three principalities of North-Eastern Russia united the same lands, only capitals and rulers changed in different years. The first city built in these parts was Rostov the Great, in the annals of which it was mentioned in 862 AD. e. Before its foundation, the Merya and Ves tribes, related to the Finno-Ugric peoples, lived here. The Slavic tribes did not like this picture, and they - Krivichi, Vyatichi, Ilmen Slovenes - began to actively populate these lands.

After the formation of Rostov, which was one of the five largest cities under the rule of the Kiev prince Oleg, references to Merya and Vesy began to appear less frequently in chronicles. For some time Rostov was ruled by henchmen of the Kievan princes, but in 987 Yaroslav the Wise, the son of Vladimir, the prince of Kiev, already ruled the principality. From 1010 - Boris Vladimirovich. Until 1125, when the capital was transferred from Rostov to Suzdal, the principality passed from hand to hand either to the Kiev rulers or had its own rulers. The most famous princes of Rostov - Vladimir Monomakh and Yuri Dolgoruky - did a lot to ensure that the development of North-Eastern Russia led to the prosperity of these lands, but soon the same Dolgoruky moved the capital to Suzdal, where he ruled until 1149. But he erected numerous fortresses and cathedrals in the style of the same fortification with heavy proportions, squat. Under Dolgoruky, writing and applied arts developed.

Rostov heritage

The significance of Rostov was, nevertheless, quite significant for the history of those years. In the annals of 913-988. the expression "Rostov land" is often found - a territory rich in game, crafts, crafts, wooden and stone architecture. In 991, one of the oldest dioceses in Russia - Rostov - was not formed here by chance. At that time, the city was the center of the principality of North-Eastern Russia, conducted intensive trade with other settlements, artisans, builders, gunsmiths flocked to Rostov ... All Russian princes tried to have a combat-ready army. Everywhere, especially in the lands separated from Kyiv, a new faith was promoted.

After Yuri Dolgoruky moved to Suzdal, Izyaslav Mstislavovich ruled Rostov for some time, but gradually the influence of the city finally faded away, and they began to mention him very rarely in the annals. The center of the principality was transferred to Suzdal for half a century.

The feudal nobility erected mansions for themselves, while artisans and peasants vegetated in wooden huts. Their dwellings were more like cellars, household items were mostly wooden. But in the premises illuminated by torches, unsurpassed products, clothing, luxury items were born. Everything that the nobility wore on themselves and with which they decorated their towers was made by the hands of peasants and artisans. The wonderful culture of North-Eastern Russia was created under the thatched roofs of wooden huts.

Rostov-Suzdal Principality

During that short period, while Suzdal was the center of North-Eastern Russia, only three princes managed to rule the principality. In addition to Yuri himself, his sons Vasilko Yuryevich and Andrey Yuryevich, nicknamed Bogolyubsky, and then, after the transfer of the capital to Vladimir (in 1169), Mstislav Rostislavovich Bezokiy ruled Suzdal for a year, but he did not play a special role in Russian history. All the princes of North-Eastern Russia came from the Rurikids, but not everyone was worthy of his kind.

The new capital of the principality was somewhat younger than Rostov and was originally referred to as Suzdal. It is believed that the city got its name from the words "build" or "create". The first time after the formation of Suzdal was a fortified fortress and was ruled by princely governors. In the first years of the XII century, there was some development of the city, while Rostov began to slowly but surely fall into decay. And in 1125, as already mentioned, Yuri Dolgoruky left the once great Rostov.

Under Yuri, who is better known as the founder of Moscow, other important events took place. So, it was during the reign of Dolgoruky that the North-Eastern principalities forever separated themselves from Kyiv. A huge role in this was played by one of the sons of Yuri - Andrei Bogolyubsky, who sacredly loved his father's patrimony and could not imagine himself without it.

The fight against the boyars and the choice of a new capital of Russia

The plans of Yuri Dolgoruky, in which he saw his elder sons as the rulers of the southern principalities, and his younger ones as the rulers of Rostov and Suzdal, were not destined to come true. But their role in some way was even more significant. So, Andrew declared himself as a wise and far-sighted ruler. His wayward character was tried in every possible way to restrain the boyars included in his council, but even here Bogolyubsky showed his will, transferring the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir, and then captured Kyiv itself in 1169.

However, the capital of Kievan Rus did not attract this person. Having won both the city and the title of "Grand Duke", he did not stay in Kyiv, but planted his younger brother Gleb as governor in it. He also assigned Rostov and Suzdal an insignificant role in the history of those years, since by that time Vladimir was the capital of North-Eastern Russia. It was this city that Andrei chose as his residence in 1155, long before the conquest of Kyiv. From the southern principalities, where he ruled for some time, he took to Vladimir the icon of the Vyshgorod Mother of God, which he greatly revered.

The choice of the capital was very successful: for almost two hundred years this city held the palm in Russia. Rostov and Suzdal tried to regain their former greatness, but even after the death of Andrei, whose seniority as the Grand Duke was recognized in almost all Russian lands, except perhaps Chernigov and Galich, they did not succeed.

Civil strife

After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the people of Suzdal and Rostov turned to the sons of Rostislav Yuryevich - Yaropolk and Mstislav - in the hope that their rule would return the cities to their former glory, but the long-awaited unification of North-Eastern Russia did not come.

In Vladimir, the younger sons of Yuri Dolgoruky, Mikhalko and Vsevolod, ruled. By that time, the new capital had significantly strengthened its significance. Andrei did a lot for this: he successfully developed construction, during the years of his reign the famous Assumption Cathedral was erected, he even sought the establishment of a separate metropolis in his principality in order to separate himself from Kyiv in this.

North-Eastern Russia under the rule of Bogolyubsky became the center of the unification of Russian lands, and later the core of the great Russian state. After the death of Andrei, the Smolensk and Ryazan princes Mstislav and Yaropolk, the children of one of the sons of Dolgoruky Rostislav, tried to seize power in Vladimir, but their uncles Mikhail and Vsevolod turned out to be stronger. In addition, they were supported by the prince of Chernigov lasted more than three years, after which Vladimir secured the status of the capital city of North-Eastern Russia, leaving both Suzdal and Rostov the lot of subordinate principalities.

From Kyiv to Moscow

The north-eastern lands of Russia by that time consisted of many cities and villages. So, the new capital was founded in 990 by Vladimir Svyatoslavovich as Vladimir-on-Klyazma. About twenty years after its founding, the city, which is part of the Rostov-Suzdal principality, did not arouse much interest among the ruling princes (until 1108). At this time, another prince, Vladimir Monomakh, took up its strengthening. He awarded the city the status of a stronghold of North-Eastern Russia.

No one could imagine that this small settlement would eventually become the capital city of Russian lands. Many more years passed before Andrew turned his attention to it and transferred the capital of his principality there, which would remain it for almost two hundred more years.

From the moment the grand dukes began to be called Vladimir, not Kiev, she lost her key role, but interest in her did not disappear at all among the princes. Everyone considered it an honor to rule Kiev. But from the middle of the XIV century, the once outlying city of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality - Moscow - gradually but surely began to rise. Vladimir, like Rostov in his time, and then Suzdal, was losing his influence. The move to Belokamennaya Metropolitan Peter in 1328 contributed a lot to this. The princes of North-Eastern Russia fought among themselves, and the rulers of Moscow and Tver tried in every possible way to win back the advantage of the main city of Russian lands from Vladimir.

The end of the XIV century was marked by the fact that the local owners received the privilege to be called the Grand Dukes of Moscow, so the advantage of Moscow over other cities became obvious. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy was the last to bear this title, after him all the rulers of Russia were called the Grand Dukes of Moscow. Thus ended the development of North-Eastern Russia as an independent and even dominant principality.

Crushing the once mighty principality

After the Metropolitan moved to Moscow, the Vladimir principality was divided. Vladimir was transferred to the Suzdal prince Alexander Vasilievich, Veliky Novgorod and Kostroma were taken over by the Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita. Even Yuri Dolgoruky dreamed of uniting North-Eastern Russia with Veliky Novgorod - in the end, this happened, but not for long.

After the death of the Suzdal prince Alexander Vasilyevich, in 1331, his lands passed to the princes of Moscow. And 10 years later, in 1341, the territory of the former North-Eastern Russia again underwent a redistribution: Nizhny Novgorod passed to Suzdal, like Gorodets, while the Vladimir principality forever remained with the Moscow rulers, who by that time, as already mentioned, also wore title of the Great. This is how the Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal principality arose.

The campaign against the North-Eastern Russia of the princes from the south and the center of the country, their militancy, contributed little to the development of culture and arts. Nevertheless, new temples were erected everywhere, in the design of which the best techniques of arts and crafts were used. A national school of icon painting was created with bright colorful ornaments characteristic of that time, combined with Byzantine painting.

Capture of Russian lands by Mongol-Tatars

Civil wars brought many misfortunes to the peoples of Russia, and the princes constantly fought among themselves, but a more terrible misfortune came with the Mongols-Tatars in February 1238. The whole of North-Eastern Russia (the cities of Rostov, Yaroslavl, Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal, Uglich, Tver) was not just ruined - it was practically burned to the ground. The army of Vladimir was defeated by a detachment of the temnik Burundai, the prince himself died, and his brother Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was forced to submit to the Horde in everything. The Mongol-Tatars only formally recognized him as the oldest over all the Russian princes, in fact, it was they who ruled everything. In the total defeat of Russia, only

In 1259, Alexander Nevsky conducted a population census in Novgorod, developed his own strategy of government and strengthened his position in every possible way. Three years later, tax collectors were killed in Yaroslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Pereyaslavl and Vladimir, North-Eastern Russia again froze in anticipation of a raid and ruin. This punitive measure was avoided - Alexander Nevsky personally went to the Horde and managed to prevent trouble, but died on the way back. It happened in 1263. It was only through his efforts that it was possible to maintain the Vladimir principality in some integrity, after the death of Alexander it broke up into independent destinies.

The liberation of Russia from the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars, the revival of crafts and the development of culture

Those were terrible years ... On the one hand, the invasion of North-Eastern Russia, on the other, the incessant skirmishes of the surviving principalities for possession of new lands. Everyone suffered: both the rulers and their subjects. Liberation from the Mongol khans came only in 1362. The Russian-Lithuanian army under the command of Prince Olgerd defeated the Mongol-Tatars, forever ousting these militant nomads from the Vladimir-Suzdal region, Muscovy, Pskov region and Novgorod region.

The years spent under the enemy yoke had disastrous consequences: the culture of North-Eastern Russia fell into complete decline. The ruin of cities, the destruction of temples, the extermination of a significant part of the population and, as a result, the loss of certain types of crafts. For two and a half centuries, the cultural and commercial development of the state stopped. Many monuments of wooden and stone architecture perished in the fire or were taken to the Horde. Many technical methods of construction, plumbing and other crafts were lost. Many monuments of writing disappeared without a trace, chronicle writing, applied art, painting fell into complete decline. It took almost half a century to restore what little was saved. But the development of new types of crafts proceeded rapidly.

Unity of cultures and lands

After liberation from the Yoke, more and more Russian princes came to a difficult decision for them and advocated the unification of their possessions into a single state. Novgorod and Pskov lands became the centers of revival and love of freedom and Russian culture. It was here that the able-bodied population began to flock from the southern and central regions, bringing with them the old traditions of their culture, writing, and architecture. Of great importance in the unification of Russian lands and the revival of culture was the influence where many ancient documents, books, works of art were preserved.

The construction of cities and temples, as well as defensive structures, began. Tver became perhaps the first city in North-Eastern Russia, where stone construction began. We are talking about the construction of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior in the style of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. In each city, along with defensive structures, churches and monasteries were built: the Savior on Ilna, Peter and Paul in Kozhevniki, Vasily on Gorka in Pskov, Epiphany in Zapskovye and many others. The history of North-Eastern Russia was reflected and continued in these buildings.

Painting was revived by Daniil Cherny and Andrei Rublev - famous Russian icon painters. Jewelry craftsmen recreated the lost shrines, many artisans worked to restore the technique of creating national household items, jewelry, and clothing. Many of those centuries have survived to this day.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused irreparable damage to Russian culture. From the beginning of the XIV century. she is reborn.

Literature

1. One of the most common genres is becoming historical story, in which historical facts were intricately combined with literary fiction. The authors of the works often used hyperbolization (exaggeration). Such stories as “About Schelkan Dudentievich”, “About the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” and others were widely disseminated. The works that spiritualized Russian culture after the glorious victory in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 are imbued with the spirit of optimism and patriotism. The well-known historical stories “The Tale of Battle of Mamaev" and "Zadonshchina".

2. Another literary genre was also very popular - "walks" are descriptions of journeys to distant lands. Thus, for example, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin in his Journey Beyond the Three Seas (dating back to the third quarter of the 15th century) depicted his distant journey to India.

3. Genre hagiography (lives of saints) also became widespread in Russia. It is characteristic that the style of “weaving words” was borrowed from Byzantine, Bulgarian literature, which assumed pomp and pomp. In this style, in particular, the lives of Sergius of Radonezh and Stephen of Perm, written by Epiphanius the Wise (beginning of the 15th century), are sustained.

4. Developed annals: many chronicles, including one of the earlier ones, Lavrentievskaya (1370s), have survived to our time in the original. In 1442, the "Russian Chronograph" began to be created - a description of world history, which was compiled by Pakhomiy Logofet.

5. During the denunciation of heresy, the Novgorod priest Gennady Gonzov at the end of the 15th century. made up the first Russian codex of the Bible. From the same time, polemical treatises of opponents of intra-church groups appeared: “Osiflyans” (Joseph Volotsky) and “non-possessors” (Nil Sorsky).

Architecture

In Novgorod a large number of small stone churches were built (Kovalevskaya, Savior on Ilyina Street, Volotovskaya, etc.).

In the Moscow principality the first stone buildings - temples in Zvenigorod and Zagorsk, the cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow. In 1367 the first white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected. In the second half of the XV century. the Kremlin was significantly rebuilt: new walls were erected, beautiful cathedrals were built: Uspensky (1476-1479), architect - Italian Aristotle Fiorovanti; Annunciation (1484–1489), built by Pskov craftsmen; Arkhangelsk (1505–1509). For ceremonial receptions, the Faceted Chamber was built (1487–1491).

Painting

In the second half of the XIV - the first half of the XV century. created two great Russian painters - Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev. They achieved perfection in icon painting. Theophanes the Greek was the author of frescoes in the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, participated in the painting of the Archangel Cathedral.

For style of Theophanes the Greek Iconography is characterized by:

1) the choice of bright rich colors;

2) emotionality;

3) expression.

The works of Andrei Rublev are characterized by:

1) high spiritual pathos;

2) penetration, humanity of images.

25. "Sudebnik" 1497

In Moscow, under the Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich, in 1497 a new legislative code was drawn up and approved, which entered Russian history under the name Sudebnik of 1497.

Sudebnik of 1497- this is the first collection of laws of a single centralized Russian state. It reflected the norms of civil, criminal and other types of law. In particular, the rules for holding court hearings in counties were changed. The chief judges were the princely governors. But in order for the courts to be honest, representatives of local residents - elders and elected "best people" had to follow the hearings. Thus, in the Sudebnik it was shown that the Grand Duke of Moscow respects the ancient veche traditions and relies not only on his state officials, but also takes into account popular opinion.

Sudebnik regulated property relations and the position of various groups of the urban and rural population. In particular, in Sudebnik, for the first time, a restriction was introduced on the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another. Usually such transitions took place after the completion of field work: if the peasant did not like living with one owner, he, in accordance with ancient custom, could go to another. But in different parts of the country, the rules for the transition were different. Now a single period for the transition of peasants was established - a week before and a week after the autumn holiday of St. George the Victorious (November 26, according to the new style - December 9). In Russia, St. George was called Yuri from ancient times, and therefore this autumn day was called St. George's Day. In accordance with the norms of the Sudebnik, the peasant had to pay a certain amount of money to the former owner for his transition. This payment was called "elderly", and in different areas ranged from half a ruble to a ruble. Modern scientists believe that the introduction of St. George's Day was the beginning of the legislative registration of serfdom.

26. State-political system of Russia in the second half of the 15th and early 16th centuries. Ivan 111 "Sovereign of All Russia".

The political system of the Russian state at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. developed towards strengthening centralization and further elevation of the power of the Moscow sovereign. The latter was an inevitable consequence of the completion of the process of collecting Great Russian lands by Moscow into a single state and the transformation of the Grand Duke of Moscow into the political leader of the entire Russian nation. Awareness of this position was expressed in the adoption by Ivan III of the title "Sovereign of All Russia".

They consistently hold the idea of ​​the divine origin of their power /title: "John, by the grace of God Sovereign ..."/. This idea was confirmed by the procedure established by Ivan III for occupying the throne - through the solemn church ceremony of "marriage" with the grand prince's crown. An important role in the rise of monarchical power was played by the marriage of Ivan III with the last Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog / 1472 / Thus, the Russian sovereign, as it were, acted as the political successor of the Byzantine emperors. The titles "king" and "autocrat" began to be introduced into use. The latter originally meant an independent sovereign, not subject to any external authority. However, already Ivan III begins to interpret the title "Autocrat" as having the meaning of the unlimited power of the monarch.

The factor that weakened the grand duke's power was the incompleteness of the process of centralization of the country, primarily the absence of an extensive state administrative apparatus. There were only 2 nationwide departments:

"Palace" - was in charge of the lands of the Grand Duke and resolved land disputes;

"Kazna" - the State Chancellery, which managed finance and foreign policy.

The management of individual territories was carried out by Moscow through the governors, who appointed the Moscow boyars. They were called "feeders", since they were completely supported by the local population - "fed" at its expense. "Feeding" was given for a period of one to three years.

From the end of the XV century. the Boyar Duma acquires a permanent character. However, its composition was small - approx. 20 people, and the possibilities are limited - it was only an advisory body with which the king only discussed and coordinated his proposals. This situation did not satisfy the boyars, who sought to counteract the autocratic aspirations of the Moscow sovereigns. The boyars were not opposed to the unity of the country, but their political ideal was a limited monarchy, in which the power of the tsar would be combined with the power of the boyar council, which performs government functions.

Among the boyar nobility there were also supporters of the estate-representative monarchy. Their ideologue, Prince Kurbsky, allowed the participation of the people in governing the country through the all-estate Zemsky Sobor.

From the end of the XV century. a single executive power begins to take shape in the person of new governing bodies - "orders". The orders grew out of temporary assignments given to the boyars. To carry out assignments / orders / the boyar selected competent officials - "clerks", created a special public place - "hut".

The clerks, as real executors of the plans of the grand duke's power, began to play an increasingly significant role in state administration. Specializing in the execution of certain assignments / financial, diplomatic, military / clerks prepared the creation of government bodies with a functional, rather than a territorial distribution of affairs.

Rise of Moscow.

The rise of the Moscow principality began at the end of the 13th century. The first Moscow prince, according to the will of his father, was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich (1263-1303). This ruler managed to somewhat expand the lands of his principality. In the early 90s. Daniel annexed Mozhaisk to the Principality of Rostov, and in 1300 he conquered Kolomna from Ryazan.

Since 1304, Daniil's son Yuri Danilovich fought for the great reign of Vladimir with Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy, who in 1305 received a label for the great reign in the Horde. Metropolitan of All Russia Peter provided support to the Moscow prince. In 1317, Yuri succeeded in obtaining a label for the grand prince's throne from the hands of Khan Uzbek, and a year later, in the Horde, Yuri's main enemy, Mikhail of Tverskoy, was killed. After the death of the latter in 1332, the label for a great reign was almost constantly in the hands of the Moscow princes.

Ivan Kalita succeeded in strengthening his influence in Novgorod, acquiring labels in the Horde for specific principalities with centers in Uglich, Galich and Beloozero. In addition, Ivan I bought villages in other principalities, which became strongholds for the "gathering" of Russian lands around Moscow. Taking care of strengthening the principality, Kalita willingly accepted immigrants from other lands into the service. Kalita was the first to use a land transfer (estate) as payment for service. Under this prince, a wooden fortress was erected in Moscow. During the reign of Ivan Kalita, the territory of the principality increased four times.

The policy of Ivan Kalita to strengthen the Moscow principality was continued by his sons - Semyon Proud and Ivan II Krasny. During the reign of these princes, the devastating raids of the Horde and Lithuanians stopped.

After the death of Ivan II the Red, his 9-year-old son Dmitry (1359-1389) became the Prince of Moscow. At this time, the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich took possession of the label for the great reign. A sharp struggle unfolded between him and the group of the Moscow boyars. Metropolitan Alexy, who actually headed the Moscow government, acted on the side of Moscow, until in 1363, Moscow finally won the victory. Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich continued the policy of strengthening the Moscow principality. In 1367 the white-stone Moscow Kremlin was erected. In 1371, Moscow inflicted a severe defeat on the Ryazan Grand Duke Oleg. The struggle with Tver continued. When in 1371 Mikhail Alexandrovich of Tverskoy, having received a label for the great reign of Vladimir, tried to occupy Vladimir, Dmitry Ivanovich refused to obey the khan's will. In 1375, Mikhail of Tverskoy again received a label on the Vladimir table. Then almost all the princes of North-Eastern Russia opposed him, supporting the Moscow prince in his campaign against Tver. After a month-long siege, the city capitulated, according to the agreement concluded between the Moscow and Tver princes, Mikhail recognized Dmitry as his "eldest brother", i.e. became subordinate.

As a result of the internal political struggle in the northeastern Russian lands, the Moscow principality achieved a leading position in the "gathering" of Russian lands and turned into a real force capable of resisting the Horde and Lithuania. Since 1374, Dmitry Ivanovich stopped paying tribute to the Golden Horde.

The reasons for the strengthening of the Moscow principality were:

favorable economic and geographical position. Moscow was located on the busy trade route of the Baltic States - the Volga region - Central Asia and the profitable grain trade brought considerable income to the princely treasury.

advantageous strategic position. Moscow, which controlled the supply of grain to Novgorod from the Volga region, blocked trade routes in crisis situations, which made Novgorodians more accommodating. From the 14th century princes controlled by Moscow were elected in Novgorod.

the capture of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, which gave Moscow economic (gathering a "way out") and political (in case of disobedience against the local princes, the Horde detachments were used) control over all the principalities of North-Eastern Russia.

understanding by Moscow princes of the special role of Orthodoxy during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The Moscow princes maintained good relations with Metropolitan Peter. After Peter's death, Kalita achieved his canonization as a saint. The residence of the metropolitans was soon in Moscow. Ivan Kalita built the first stone Moscow Cathedral of the Assumption of the Mother of God. Moscow has become the religious center of North-Eastern Russia.

exceptional pragmatism of the Moscow princes. One of the first they went to close cooperation with the Horde. This made it possible to subjugate practically all the principalities of North-Eastern Russia to Moscow and to ensure the cessation of the Horde pogroms, as well as to restrain the onslaught of Lithuania.

Moscow principality under Vasily I Dmitrievich.

By the beginning of the XV century. in northeastern Russia, several practically independent state formations continued to exist. The most significant and powerful of them was the Moscow principality. By this time, the territories of Moscow itself and the lands of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir had practically merged. Dmitry Donskoy, who died in 1389, in his will transferred the reign of Vladimir to his eldest son Vasily I (1389 - 1425) as his "patrimony", without making this transfer dependent on the will of the khans of the Golden Horde. Vasily I managed to significantly increase his possessions, having achieved in 1392 the accession of the Nizhny Novgorod principality.

However, the Grand Duke was not the only owner of the Moscow lands - according to tradition, all male members of the Grand Duke's family were allocated destinies, and their owners were called appanage princes. At the beginning of the XV century. these were, first of all, the younger brothers of Vasily I, who received their territories according to the will of Dmitry Donskoy and the great uncle of the Grand Duke, the hero of the Battle of Kulikovo, Vladimir Andreevich Serpukhovskoy.

The dependence on the Golden Horde also continued, expressed primarily in the payment of tribute. Despite this dependent position, Vasily I sought to strengthen the international authority of the principality by marrying the daughter of the powerful ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Vitovt Sophia