Beijing today is not only the rapid growth of entrepreneurship. These are the high rates of housing construction, the modernization of industry, the work of scientific institutions.

The plan of Beijing has a clear rectangular shape. Therefore, with a map of the city in hand, it is difficult to get lost on the local streets. They do not wind and do not bifurcate, like, say, Moscow ones, and they will always lead you to where you are going. For many, Beijing begins at the train station. The forecourt square seethes with streams of people flowing between passengers from other cities sitting right on the pavement ... Suitcases, traditional striped bags stuffed with goods bought in the capital, noise, hubbub. More than a million visitors visit Beijing every day. Everyone is accepted by the ancient capital of China.

The central part of Beijing is Tiananmen Square. Its dimensions are about 100 thousand square meters. State and party institutions are concentrated around it. The square is named after the northern gate of Tiananmen located in front of it - the "Gate of Heavenly Peace", which is one of the entrances to the former imperial "forbidden city". At one time, even high-ranking Chinese dignitaries did not have access there.

Those days are long gone. Toyotas, Mazdas, Mercedes, buses filled with tourists from different tribes rush past the Forbidden City. To the holy of holies of the "forbidden city" - Gugun, a complex of imperial palaces, anyone can go for a fee. Its cheaper, foreigners - several times more expensive. But that doesn't affect the experience. It is equally enthusiastic for everyone. Palaces alternate like pearls strung on a necklace. More than 500 years of this miracle. It was built back in the 15th century under the Yongle Emperor. There are many such miracles in Beijing, and even near the city. For example, the Great Wall of China, the construction of which began in the 3rd century BC by Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor who united China. Near Beijing is its main section - Badaling. Two large trucks can pass freely on it.

The great buildings of antiquity are the memory and reality of the Chinese people. But they no longer define the look of Beijing, but give it a romantic flavor. Beijing is not the old city of bureaucracy and merchants that it used to be. It is developing rapidly. The economic reform launched in 1978 gave a powerful boost to industry, transport, agriculture, and business activity. In just a few years, high-rise buildings of fashionable hotels have grown up in the center of the capital and on its outskirts, from the roofs of which Beijing is visible at a glance. The Chang-cheng, Zhaolong, Xiyuan and dozens of other hotels crowded out small fanzas stuck to each other. Almost from all over the world, foreign entrepreneurs came to get their profit from the huge Chinese market that hospitably opened the gates.

The industry is growing, and the population of the city is growing. Now it has already reached 17 million people. Over the past few years, a number of new modern residential microdistricts have been built. But this did not completely solve the problem with housing, it created a serious situation with water and energy supply, and transport. In a word, the city authorities have something to break their heads over. Meanwhile, the traffic on the streets of Beijing does not stop for a minute. Cars, masses of cyclists... warning signals... collisions... Pedestrians are moving past the shops in a thick stream. Almost at every step there are taverns, shops, shops. And here is the famous Wangfujing shopping street. It is located perpendicular to the main avenue of Beijing - Chananjie - the street of "Eternal Tranquility". In Beijing, shop signs are commonplace, but Wangfujing has a lot of them. Life here does not stop even at dusk. Merchants take out the trays, and seductive aromas spread in the evening air: dumplings, manti, noodles ... Simple food. But for those who did not have time to dine, it is very useful.

Only by midnight Beijing calms down. The subway is closing, transporting the last passengers of city vehicles. Hotels burn with neon hieroglyphs. The city falls asleep in order to meet a new working day in a few hours.

The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, a phrase, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

Read the text and do tasks 1-3.

(1) Many dialect words refer to specific rural realities (objects of the world around us), which are associated with agriculture, village households, and the arrangement of a peasant house. (2)_____ not all dialect words denote some special rural realities. (3) There are much more of those that serve as local names for very ordinary, ubiquitous objects, phenomena, actions, concepts.

1

Which of the following sentences correctly conveys the MAIN information contained in the text?

1. Dialect words both designate specific rural realities and serve as local names for common objects, phenomena, actions, concepts.

2. Many dialect words refer to specific rural realities that are associated with agriculture and village households.

3. Not all dialect words denote some special rural realities associated with agriculture, village household chores, and the arrangement of a peasant house.

4. There are many more such dialect words that are associated with the arrangement of a peasant house.

5. Dialect words often serve as local names for common objects and phenomena, but they can also denote specific rural realities.

2

Which of the following words should be in place of the gap in the second (2) sentence of the text? Write out this word.

1. Unfortunately,

4. Perhaps

3

Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word DEVICE. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the first (1) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

DEVICE, -a, cf.

1. Location, ratio of parts, construction of something. Convenient at. premises. The device is a complex device.

2. Established order, order. State u. Public

3. Technical structure, mechanism, machine, device. Decisive at. Regulating at.

4

In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.

security

disabled

embitter

got

5

In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

1. Yakov Podkova - the instigator of the fight - was the first to leave the yard.

2. Idle way of life was the cause of the death of not only individuals, but also entire states.

3. The greatness of the landscape is given by CENTURY-OLD spruces and firs.

4. Bringing out the fire is the most IMPRESSIVE moment of the ceremony.

5. By the end of school, my parents gave me a MEMORABLE gift.

6

In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

best DOCTORS

three pairs of shoes

PUT in the bag

the source has EXHAUSTED

at the end of the holiday

7

Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other characters.

8

Determine the word in which the unstressed alternating vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

stop barking

m...rzlota

change...

r... petitor

win... denunciatory

9

Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.

pr...rights, pr...possibility

n ... reproach, with ... regret

pr ... imagine, pr ... announcement

oh ... distant, oh ... cottage

pr ... to cut, pr ... dressed up

10

Write down the word in which the letter E is written in place of the gap.

sorrel..vy

hardy..out

glued..l

attach .. to

fool..vy

11

Write down the word in which the letter Y is written in place of the gap

thinning (fog)

(graduates) meet..tsya

(fogs) stele..tsya

(lines) in contact..tsya

(they) rinse..t (linen)

12

Indicate all the numbers in the place of which the letter I is written.

As n (1) tried, I n (2) was able to find n (3) cracks in the prickly hedge, n (4) manhole, so I tore off my sides n (5) times until I got into the yard.

13

Determine the sentence in which both underlined words are spelled ONE. Open the brackets and write out these two words.

1. Snow in Norilsk melts only (B) at the beginning of June, and at the end of September it falls (B) NEW.

2. The mouse silently and quickly emerged (FROM) UNDER the canopy and disappeared into the (HALF) DARKNESS.

3. (B) SOON our patience burst, and, (NOT) LOOKING at the bad weather, we decided to go back to the sea.

4. When I was young, I had to be (ABROAD) TO understand and appreciate the beauty of my native land.

5. At the same dacha, countless treasures (B) in the form of diamonds, as well as (SAME) gold money of royal coinage, were discovered.

14

Indicate all the numbers in the place of which N is written.

It was overcast and windy(1)o. Foam (2) waves rolled onto a long (3) sandy (4) shoal.

15

Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.

1. At that very moment, a woman in a uniform jacket, cap, black skirt and slippers entered the office.

2. In each of these windows, a fire burned under an orange lampshade, and the hoarse roar of a polonaise from the opera Eugene Onegin burst out of all the windows.

3. From a small bag on her belt, the woman took out a little white square and a notebook.

4. Ivan did not pick up the scattered sheets and wept softly and bitterly.

5. Women disappeared behind a curtain, left their dresses there and went out in new ones.

16

Reflecting with living silver (1), the water extended to the other bank, and (2) the wind (4) infused with field grasses (3) weakly blowing (5) barely perceptibly shakes the young growth (6) creeping along the eaves of the other bank.

17

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentences.

Autumn is (1) undeniably (2) a beautiful season. Firstly (3) crimson and golden leaves spread over the ground and enliven the forest (4) secondly (5) in autumn, an abundance of vegetables and fruits.

18

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

I sat on the deck for a long time (1) and looked into the darkness (2) where the endless forests rustled (3) where it was not visible (4) and (5) where for hundreds of kilometers you will not meet a single person.

19

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

It turned out (1) that the snowdrift (2) in which (3) he buried himself in the snow (4) was a shed (5) and they wandered between two villages.

20

Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by replacing the incorrectly used word. Write down the chosen word, observing the norms of the modern Russian literary language.

Of course, his family had a great influence on him: his mother was a teacher of Russian language and literature, his father taught at the university.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-26.

(1) Glitter is a well-designed machine for selling expensive things to stupid rich people. (2) And expensive things are made in order to be bought by stupid rich people; not even stupid, but simply concerned about status for various reasons. (Z) Such a bourgeoisie in the classical sense, for which status is more important than true existence: a suit is more important than a person, appearance is more important than inside ...

(4) For example, in glamor magazines one cannot work full; employees must have a good figure, that is, by their existence, confirm that the world of glamor exists: here it is.

(5) And a fat person simply cannot be shown: he is not in glamor. (6) Although if a certain number of rich women were fat, glamor would move, he would take them into account. (7) And so there are invented images - a Procrustean bed: neither longer nor shorter. (8) And the rest, as it were, are not.

(9) The task of the gloss is first to neuroticize, to shame, to indicate where the pillory is located, to which you will be taken if you do not comply; then - to offer them ideal models of everything, and happiness will come. (10) That is, they say that happiness will come to you if you fulfill certain financial conditions, in fact.

(11) All these purchases that glamor offers are aimed at women. (12) And there, in this world of steepness, a man, having reached a certain status level, gets himself a very young wife - not because he fell in love with her, but because it's cool to have one, and chosen according to a certain type: they they are all the same. (13) And he presents it to the world and holds his diamonds on it.

(14) Here are very rich people, if you talk to them, they eventually admit: you don’t understand, making money is an end in itself, it’s impossible to stop. (15) Adrenaline is like that. (16) And a by-product of this passion of theirs - it creates cities, factories, pumps oil, gives jobs ... (17) They think about themselves, of course, and not about how they could build cities; and in this eternal struggle for status and females, they exist, and the rest is a by-product.

(18) But this world, in order to exist, must be provided with something; and a variety of structures are molded around it.

(19) Glamor is one of these structures.

(20) Only very strong personalities can set other goals for themselves. (21) That is, it doesn’t matter to them what they are wearing, what kind of wife they have - let her fail. (22) They think about some global things: about immortality during life or, conversely, about glory after death; to found a university, to build a hospital, to do good to talents - simply because one wants to preserve art, to build hospitals, and not to cover one's whole house with gold. (23) Arrange awards, competitions, build museums - whatever. (24) After all, science, medicine, education, art - all this is terribly interesting.

(25) And most of the rich people do not have interests that lie in these abstract areas. (26) What do you think, Lord, it’s like growing up, shooting down competitors, deceiving, licking the boots of power, forgetting an old mother in the village, kicking out your wife, all this terrible way to the top - and here’s your reward: in the front row, watch the “Golden Gramophone” . (27) And then, in Bentleys and Mercedes, go through our terrible, uncleaned Moscow, with everyone who stands nearby in their rusty Zhiguli cars, - there, into the gorge of Rublyovka, with one-way traffic and a humiliating forty-minute wait at the turn, because there is someone older must pass.

The content of the article

BEIJING, the capital of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of China, about 160 km northwest of the port of Tianjin. Prior to the formation of the People's Republic in 1949, Beijing was surrounded by a city wall and was about 8 km across. It occupied the outskirts of an agricultural area of ​​780 sq. km in Hebei province. Shortly after 1949, the city was given the status of an independent administrative unit, directly subordinate to the Central People's Government, and its territory was expanded to 17,793 square meters. km. Today, Beijing is one of the main industrial cities in China, the cultural center and the heart of one of the most populated metropolitan areas in the world.

Geographic location and climate.

Beijing proper is located within the lowlands at the northern tip of the North China Plain. About 3/5 of the territory of the city, together with the suburbs, lies in a mountainous area, framing the old city from the west, north and east. Several rivers flow through the plains around Beijing, including the Baihe and Yongdinghe, which constitute the main source of the city's water supply. Beijing is located within a seismically dangerous zone, and in 1976 the city of Tangshan, located 160 km east of Beijing, was destroyed by an earthquake that caused significant damage to the capital itself. Weather conditions in Beijing are affected by spring and summer monsoon winds blowing from the northwest and southeast. In early spring, northwest winds from the Gobi desert shroud the city in clouds of yellow dust. In summer, southeast winds from the ocean cause heavy showers, which is why about 3/4 of the annual precipitation (610 mm) falls on the summer season. In general, summers in Beijing are hot and humid, while winters are cold and dry. However, from mid-September to November, the weather is clear, cool and very pleasant.

Population.

Peking grew enormously after 1949, when it had a little over 2 million inhabitants, 4/5 of whom lived in the city itself. By 1988, the population of Greater Beijing was estimated at 10,670,000 people, including nearly 6,710,000 people living in the city itself. The most important reason for this growth was rapid industrialization.

Planning and architecture.

Since its founding in the Yuan Dynasty, Beijing has been the capital of China for the most part. To this day, the appearance of the city clearly shows the features associated with its leading role in the empire. The territory of old Beijing is clearly divided into two parts: the square "Inner" or "Tatar city" in the north and the oblong "Outer" or "Chinese city" adjoining it from the south.

The “Tatar city”, whose name reflects its creation during the reign of the Mongol conquerors in the 13th century, was built along the main axis - a straight line crossing it from north to south, and surrounded by 12-meter walls, which were dismantled only in 1950- e years. Within the walls of the "Tatar city" with a length of about 24 km, two palace ensembles were enclosed, created mainly in the 15th century. during the Ming Dynasty and also surrounded by walls.

In the very center was the Purple, or Forbidden City, framed by a moat. Behind its walls, 3.6 km long, was the Imperial Palace, built from 1406 to 1420 and currently a museum. The palace complex consists of more than 9,000 rooms, its total area is about 100 hectares. The architectural ensemble includes huge gates, audience halls and living quarters. The yellow tiled roofs of the buildings rise above the red adobe walls of the city. In the center of the "Forbidden City" are the "Pavilion of Supreme Harmony", where the imperial throne was located, the "Pavilion of Complete Harmony", where political decisions were developed, and the "Pavilion of Preserving Harmony", where diplomats and academic advisers were received. The pavilions are placed on terraced pedestals; long flights of white marble stairs lead to their entrances. Each of the pavilions was arranged in such a way that the emperor always sat with his face turned exactly to the south and with the North Star behind him. The same orientation of buildings in the direction from north to south was maintained in the entire "Tatar city", built symmetrically about a single meridional axis.

In general, the buildings of the "Forbidden City" are subject to a single plan. As a rule, they are one-story, with light wooden walls, and their massive roofs with gracefully raised cornices are supported by complex systems of beams and brackets resting on strong wooden columns. Structures of this type have an important advantage: they are practically not damaged during earthquakes. However, they are exceptionally vulnerable to fire, and many of the surviving buildings have required major repairs or rebuilding more than once in their long history. This work is carefully continued by the current government of China.

The "Forbidden City" was surrounded by a second square of red walls with a total length of 9.7 km, inside which was located the so-called. "Imperial city", which included imperial parks, temples and minor palaces. Its southern wall has survived to this day, as well as sections of the western wall adjacent to two artificial lakes: Zhonghai (Central Sea) and Nanhai (South Sea). They were surrounded by minor palaces, which currently serve as the reception and residences of the Chinese leadership. To the north is the third man-made lake, Beihai (North Sea), which is surrounded by a public park. The famous Tibetan-style White Pagoda, built in the 17th century, rises on the island in the middle of this lake. Nearby are the National Beijing Library and the National Handicraft Exhibition.

Three more parks are located inside the Imperial City. One of them, Meishan Park, or Jingshan, is located exactly north of the Forbidden City on the "Coal Mountain" - an artificial hill formed during the excavation of the three artificial lakes of the "Imperial City". From this hill, which is the highest point of Beijing, a wide panorama of the entire capital opens up. Two more parks occupy the part of the "Imperial City", located to the south of the walls of the "Forbidden City", i.e. the territory where the imperial temples were located. To the east of the Tiananmen Gate, on the site of the family Temple of Remembrance of the Emperor's Ancestors, there is the People's Park of Culture with the Palace of Culture of the Workers, and to the west of the Tiananmen Gate, inside the walls that used to enclose the imperial "Altar of the Deities of the Earth and Cereals", Zhongshanyuan Park, or Sun Park is currently located Yatsen, leader of the revolution of 1911-1912, which destroyed the imperial power.

South of the two named parks is the surviving southern wall of the "Imperial City", in the center of which is the famous Tiananmen Gate (Gate of Heavenly Peace) in the center. It was from here that in 1949 Mao Zedong proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic of China, and it is here, on the huge Tiananmen Square, expanded in 1950, that the political life of the republic is concentrated. On Tiananmen Square there is the Monument to the People's Heroes and the Mao Zedong Memorial Hall - the mausoleum where the body of the Chinese leader is kept, open to the public. On its northern border runs Chang'anjie (Eternal Peace Avenue), Beijing's main boulevard. Along it are many of the city's more modern sights. On the western side of the square, a monumental building was erected - the House of the National People's Congress, where congresses of this supreme authority and other important state events are held. Opposite this building is an impressive building complex that houses the China History Museum and the Chinese Revolution Museum. Grandiose demonstrations and fireworks are organized on the square itself on national holidays.

The public buildings on Tiananmen Square are probably the most important buildings in this third, outer part of the "Tatar City". Initially, the residences of the nobility, palace courtiers and imperial officials were located in this area. It later became known as the "ambassadorial quarter" because there were many foreign missions here. The area is criss-crossed by many main streets running east-west and north-south, as well as a network of hutongs, side streets containing shops, restaurants, markets, and residential areas enclosed by tall gray walls with large red gates.

Until the 1950s, the southern wall of the “Tatar City” ran directly south of Tiananmen Square, and although the walls and massive gates were later dismantled, the line along which they passed can be traced along the preserved canals - the former fortress ditches filled with water. Behind these walls begins the "Outer", or "Chinese City", which had the shape of a rectangle with dimensions of 3.2 km from north to south and 8 km from west to east. Initially, it was a territory occupied by commercial and entertainment establishments. Their owners concentrated here to serve the rich who lived inside the walls of the "Tatar City". In the middle of the 16th century and this area was, in turn, surrounded by a protective wall 6 m high, and the network of its streets was ordered in accordance with the specialization of the enterprises located in one or another of them: for example, selling paper, writing instruments, ceramic tiles, jade jewelry , cloisonne enamel, etc. This specialization has partly survived to this day. The "Outer City" also housed larger shopping areas, as well as religious temples. Most of the latter, both in the "Tatar" and "Chinese" city, were later turned into schools and other state institutions, however, despite the fact that the "Outer City" was largely included in the mainstream of modern political life, it remains in many ways the most diverse and colorful part of Beijing.

On the southern outskirts of the old "Chinese City" there are two large parks. Tiantan (Temple of Heaven Park) in the southeast contains an ensemble of buildings where important state sacrifices were once performed. One of the temple structures - the "Altar of Heaven" - is a three-level terrace of white marble. Three tiers symbolize three elements: heavenly, earthly and human. The second building, the Huangqugyu (Hall of the Heavens), is 20 m high and has an octagonal shape in plan. This building is surrounded by an elaborately constructed "wall of echo". The third building, Qingyandian Hall (Hall of Harvest Prayer) is a 27 m high round building with a three-tiered roof. The dark blue glazed roof tiles, the elaborate woodwork and the marvelously decorated interior make it one of Beijing's most tourist attractions. This whole pavilion, with its decoration, rich in traditional symbols, is one of the main architectural monuments of China.

The second largest park in the Outer City, Taozhanting (meaning "Slightly Drunk Gazebo" in Chinese), is located to the west. Between the two named parks is the ancient imperial “Temple of Agriculture” (or “Temple of the God of Agriculture”), where the emperor himself, in peasant clothes, led the ritual dedicated to spring plowing and offered prayers for a generous harvest.

Other attractions in the Outer City include the Beijing Stadium and Sports Complex located in the southeast of the city, and the huge Beijing Railway Station located directly against the wall of the Imperial City on the northeastern outskirts of the Outer City. Its construction was completed in 1959. Numerous seven- and ten-story apartment buildings were also erected in the "Outer City", in addition to four- and five-story buildings built before 1949. However, in general, the skyline of Beijing still remains relatively one-two-story buildings were determined by the imperial law, which prohibited the construction of buildings higher than the temples of the Forbidden City.

Beijing also lacks a central business district. Instead, large and small shopping centers are scattered throughout the city, which allows city residents to shop mostly in the same areas where they live. Probably Beijing's busiest shopping thoroughfare is Wangfujing, which runs along the eastern side of the "Imperial City" north of Chang'anjie. This street is home to the 17-storey Beijing Hotel, the tallest building in the old city, as well as the Beijing Department Store and Dongfeng Market, the largest indoor shopping mall that combines a variety of small shops and restaurants.

Capital region.

After 1949, and especially after the old city walls were demolished, Beijing expanded widely in all directions at such a rate that it is now often difficult to tell where Beijing proper ends and the suburbs begin. Moving away from the center of the city, the traveler sees new residential buildings, factories and administrative buildings rising everywhere among densely planted fields. The farther from the center, the greater the role of gardens and farms in the landscape, but here too there are medium and large industrial enterprises. Beijing's original expansion plans called for a concentration of new industrial facilities in the southeast of the city to minimize the threat of air pollution given the prevailing wind direction, but there are numerous exceptions, chief among them being the large Shijingshan Iron and Steel Works, located 19 kilometers west of Beijing. cities. Elsewhere to the west are numerous military camps as well as military factories, and to the southwest is one of China's main nuclear research centers. The southern and eastern suburbs are home to a number of large industrial complexes, including oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical industries, engineering and automotive plants, and textile factories. In the northern sector, mainly cultural and scientific institutions are concentrated, as well as several parks, sports complexes, a zoo and the Druzhba hotel with a tourist center.

Three attractions outside the old city deserve special attention. The first of these is the old "Summer Palace" (Yiheyuan), located 11 km northwest of the city, one of the most popular recreation areas for Beijing residents. The park served as the site of imperial gardens and palaces from at least 1153. The modern complex consists mainly of restored buildings, the construction of which began at the end of the 19th century. The park includes Lake Kunminghu and Mount Wanshoushan (Mountain of Longevity) to the north of it. Temples and graceful pagodas rise on the mountain. A long gallery runs along the shore of the lake, connecting the buildings of the palace complex at the foot of the Wanshoushan Mountain with each other. Beautiful bridges are thrown across the lake: the Camel's Back Bridge and the Shikongqiao Bridge with seventeen spans. In the distance, behind the bridges, the famous "Jade Pagoda" is visible.

The Ming Tombs, located along an alley 32 km northwest of Beijing, the burial place of 13 emperors, is another attraction in the suburbs of the capital. A smoothly curving road (“The Way of High Virtue”), framed by monumental stone sculptures, leads to them. In front of the oval burial mounds, inside which the tombs themselves are located, ocher-red pavilions rise under the traditional yellow tiled roofs with corners turned up.

The third outstanding attraction near Beijing is the Great Wall of China itself. The only man-made object on Earth large enough to be seen from the moon, this gigantic fortification lies 48 kilometers from Beijing. The Great Wall of China, 4000 km long, stretches in a winding ribbon from the Yellow Sea to the Gobi Desert.

Education and cultural life.

Beijing has 49 institutions of higher learning, including some of China's most prestigious universities. Among them is Peking University, which was founded in 1898 and has been the center of Chinese scientific and political activity since the May 4th movement of 1919. American subsidies.

Tsinghua University, Beijing's second preeminent scientific school, was opened in 1911 and quickly became China's leading university in the sciences and humanities. Among other well-known educational institutions, opened for the most part after 1949, one can name the Chinese People's University, which enjoys special prestige in the economic sciences, and a number of specialized technical institutes.

The largest library in China, the Beijing Library boasts an outstanding collection of classical works, inherited from the imperial collections built up over nearly 1,200 years. Other important libraries in Beijing are based at the Academy of Sciences, the Chinese History Museum and the main universities of the capital.

Beijing is also rich in museums. Particularly interesting are the Palace Museum (Gugong), located in the Forbidden City, and the Chinese History Museum on Tiananmen Square. Both of these museums have outstanding collections of antiquities. Other well-known museums include the Museum of the Chinese Revolution, the People's Revolutionary Military Museum of China, the Central Museum of Natural History, the Geological Museum, and the Museum of Chinese Art. Interesting exhibitions of works of art and material culture are also open in many city parks and temples, and the Museum of Minsk Graves displays a unique collection of objects from the Minsk period discovered during recent archaeological excavations.

There are more than 25 theaters in Beijing, where Western-style dramas, operas, modern Chinese musicals, concerts, acrobatic and dance performances are staged. Cinema is also very popular in the city, as are competitions in various sports such as basketball, table tennis, gymnastics, athletics and swimming. In addition to practicing many of these sports, the people of Beijing place an unusually high emphasis on maintaining normal physical fitness, and every morning the streets and parks of the city fill with groups of people practicing wushu and traditional Chinese gymnastics.

Public transport.

Beijing is one of the main transport hubs in China. The new Beijing Airport, located about 16 km northeast of the city, is connected by flights to major cities in China and to foreign countries. Four major railways also lead to Beijing.

Inside the city, passengers are transported by buses and trolleybuses. Although the city's transport fleet is somewhat outdated, the routes follow short timetables and ticket prices remain very low. There are also suburban bus routes. In addition, the first line of the modern Beijing Subway connects the Beijing Station, located in the old "Chinese City", with the suburb of Shijingshan, located approximately 16 km to the west of it. The second metro line, encircling the ancient “Tatar city”, was put into operation in the 1980s.

China's personal vehicle fleet is still small, but Beijing has a good, albeit relatively expensive, taxi service. However, the main mode of transport for most of the city's residents is the bicycle, and although goods are now mostly transported by trucks, tricycles, as well as ox-carts, are still widely used for the transport of both passengers and small loads.

Control.

The Beijing Central Administrative Region consists of 9 urban areas and 9 suburban districts, which are under the Beijing People's Congress. District leaders carry out the day-to-day administration of their territories in accordance with the general budget and policies set by the municipality. Districts are divided into sub-districts, street committees organized locally, and organizations of individual educational institutions, enterprises and residential areas subordinate to them. Districts are divided into communes, brigades and work groups.

Economy.

Although Beijing is not yet as industrialized as Shanghai or Shenyang, it has nevertheless become a major center for the production of textiles and synthetic fibers, petrochemicals, light and heavy machinery, equipment, cars and trucks, agricultural machinery, printing and radio electronics, including computers and televisions. At the same time, this city remains the main center for the development of artistic folk crafts in China. It is famous for its traditional cloisonne enamels, lacquer, jade and ivory carvings, and paper art. Agricultural production also plays an important economic role in the Beijing suburbs, where farmers grow large quantities of grains and a variety of vegetables for local consumption.

Story.

In historical times, there was a large settlement in what is now Beijing from at least 1027 BC, when the city of Ji, the capital of the feudal state of Yan, was founded here during the Zhou Dynasty. The state of Yan fell during the unification of China under the rule of the emperors of the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century. BC, but its capital Ji retained its importance, mainly due to its location on the extreme ledge of the North China Plain. Being on an important trade route to Mongolia, Manchuria and Korea, the city served both as a fortress to protect the interior of the country from invasions from the north, and as a stronghold for expanding China's influence in these countries.

In 608 AD Emperor Yang of the Sui dynasty ordered the construction of a canal from the Yellow River to Beijing to supply his troops involved in a military campaign against Korea. This canal was later connected to other canals further south to form the Grand Canal, part of which near Beijing is still in use today. After the fall of the Tang Dynasty in 907 AD. Beijing came under the rule of foreign conquerors from Manchuria and for more than 300 years (during the reign of the Liao and Jin dynasties) served as the capital of the province. Then, in 1271, the Mongol Khan Kublai, who conquered the state of Jin, declared the city the capital of the Yuan empire he founded. Dadu, as the new capital was called, quickly became one of the most open, cosmopolitan cities in the world. Marco Polo and other Europeans visited it already in the 13th century. However, in 1367 Dadu fell, conquered by Chinese troops under the command of the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty, who moved his capital to Nanjing and renamed Dadu Beiping (Pacified North).

During this period, Beiping was ruled by one of the sons of the emperor, the ruler Yan, but at the beginning of the 15th century. he usurped the imperial throne, and in 1420 the capital returned to Beiping, which was accordingly renamed Beijing (in the Russian traditional transcription Beijing), which means "Northern Capital". Since that time, Beijing has always remained the capital of China, except for a brief period from 1928 to 1949, when the Kuomintang government restored the decision of the first emperor of the Ming dynasty, choosing Nanjing as its capital and again renaming Beijing to Beiping.

In recent times, Beijing has been both the center of China's conflicts with foreign states, and the focus of revolutionary transformations associated with China's perception of Western ideas and forms of government. In 1860, British and French troops captured the city, destroying a significant part of the imperial "Summer Palace". In 1900 the city was again occupied by foreign troops during the so-called. Ihetuan, or Boxer, uprising. In 1919, Peking became the center of activity for political and other forces, including both the May 4th movement, aimed at renewing China and liberating it from foreign domination, and the communist revolutionary movement, which came to power about 30 years later. In 1937, the city was again captured by foreign troops, this time by the Japanese, who held it until 1945, when they surrendered to the Kuomintang. On January 23, 1949, the Kuomintang troops, in turn, surrendered the city to the communists after its symbolic siege, which lasted 6 weeks, and on October 1, 1949, the formation of the People's Republic of China was proclaimed from the platform of the Tiananmen Gate in Beijing.

Communist rule brought relative stability to Beijing, but the city soon faced new challenges as a result of thirty years of rapid industrial and population growth. By 1980, shops, facilities, and transportation were overwhelmed, and the housing crisis worsened. Industrial construction has taken over much of the valuable agricultural land, industrialization has overwhelmed the city's water supply, and air pollution has become a serious public health threat. As a result, a decision was made to limit the further growth of the city.

OPTION 14 USE-2015

Part 1

The answers to tasks 1-24 are a number, a word, a phrase or sequence of words, numbers . Write your answer in the answer field in the text of the work, and then transfer

in the ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of the task number, starting from the first cell, Write each letter and number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

Read the text and complete tasks 1-3.

(1) The geological processes that shape the appearance and internal structure of our planet proceed extremely slowly and cannot be directly observed. (2) The only exception is volcanic activity - a grandiose and impressive phenomenon: during volcanic eruptions, the appearance of individual parts of the Earth can change beyond recognition in a matter of days (and sometimes hours and even minutes). (3) that this alone and the possibility of direct contact with the "internal content" of the planet makes scientists take a special interest in the process of volcanism.

1. Which of the following sentences is correctHOME information contained in the text?

1) Volcanic activity is a grandiose and impressive phenomenon.

2) None of the slow geological processes can be directly observed.

3) Volcanic eruption can change certain parts of the Earth beyond recognition in a matter of days.

4) The process of volcanism - the only one of the geological processes that quickly forms the face of the Earth and allows you to see its structure - is of particular interest to scientists.

5) The process of volcanism is the only one of the geological processes that quickly forms the face of the Earth and allows you to see its structure, which is of interest to scientists.

2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).

Even Naturally Despite the fact And Firstly

Answer:_______________________________________

3. Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word PLOT. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the second (2) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

PLOT , -tka, husband.

1) A small part of the surface area of ​​something.Plots of the Moon, at. craters.

2) Part of the land area occupied by something. or meant for something. Sadovy (in a horticultural association).He has a dacha outside the city, u.

3) In a number of services, in special areas of activity: the administrative-territorial division of something.Electoral at. U. service way. Medical at.

4) Action area of ​​some kind. military unit, military unit.U. defense. W. breakthrough. U. forcing. At the division site.

5) Region, industry of some kind. social activities.Important at. work.

6) In tsarist Russia: subdivision, city police department.

Answer:_______________________________________

4. One of the following words has an accent error:WRONG the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted. Write out this word.

who understood the cakes, the catalog is more beautiful after

Answer:_______________________________________

5. One of the suggestions belowWRONG highlighted word is used.Correct the mistake and spell the word correctly.

A participant in a business or tourist trip to the United States must SUBMIT a package of relevant documents in order to apply for a visa.

Calcium deficiency in the body will help to REPLENISH first of all such products as milk, cottage cheese, cheese.

Participation in team games and other interesting sporting events gives us a REVITALIZING charge of vivacity.

When rolling out the dough, it is necessary to periodically shake off excess flour from the rolling pin.

A GOOD house was purchased at the expense of my father.

Answer:_______________________________________

6. In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form.Correct the mistake and spell the word correctly.

a couple of APPLES about FIVE hundred kilometers

a few TOWELS THEIR conversation

RIDE FASTER

Answer:_______________________________________

7. Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

SUGGESTIONS

A) Listening to the opera "The Snow Maiden" by Nikolai Andreevich Rimsky-Korsakov, one is overcome with excitement.

B) The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates once said that "I know that I know nothing."

C) Those who, with the help of facts, can prove the correctness of their own decision, should not put up with the incompetence of others.

D) I read this work by Vasil Bykov in the summer, dedicated to the Great Patriotic War.

E) Thanks to the best specialists, I was able to make the correct diagnosis.

Answer:

A

8. Determine the word in which the unstressed checked vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

publisher

Answer:_______________________________________

9. Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.

not .. cook, n .. and the most capable of pr.. vicissitudes (fate), pr .. cook

be .. useful, in .. invigorate before .. blowing, to .. play

pr..sharp, pr..grad

Answer:_______________________________________

10. E .

little finger .. uncommunicative .. hardy .. freckled .. attached .. to

Answer:_______________________________________

11. Write down the word in which the letter is written in the place of the gapAND .

independent..my heating..my suspicion..my washer..my consumption..my

Answer:_______________________________________

12. Define a sentence thatNOT spelled with the wordONE . Open the brackets and write out this word.

(NOT) TO UNDERSTAND people how Bim found healing herbs.

The artist was thinking about the idea of ​​a (NOT) CREATED canvas.

The girl walked down the street, (NOT) LOOKING around.

Friends had a (NOT) HURRY conversation.

(NOT) ONLY theater, but also cinema interested old friends.

Answer:_______________________________________

13. Determine the sentence in which both underlined words are writtenONE . Open the brackets and write out these two words.

The village of Ozertso is changing, but in the shallow river SO (SAME) the month is sinking, and SO (SAME) strength is given to it by the keys, and the boys drink from the ladle of their palms, like a century ago.

My companions THAT (SAME) examined the coast (B) FOR a whole hour and found amber of a bizarre shape.

The sounds gradually weaken, (PO) LITTLE fade, and soon they (CO) EVERYONE can no longer be heard.

AND (NOT) DESPITE what the travelers knew about the fast approaching twilight, the darkness ALL(SIN) took them by surprise.

(DURING) DURING the trip by car, be careful, AS (AS) the traffic on this street is one-way.

Answer:_______________________________________

14. Indicate all the numbers in the place of which it is writtenone letterN.

Old (1) lamps, weaving (2) wallets, silver (3) knives and forks, old, dull Venetian glass - everything was thrown out (4) about the surf of time on this square, as waves throw algae, shells ashore and other sea rubbish.

Answer:_______________________________________

15. Arrange punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of offers in which you want to putONE comma.

1) The artist traveled around the Gulf of Finland and the Black Sea and reflected his impressions in many canvases.

2) Each aspen in the forest or on the border in autumn seems to me some kind of fantastic plant.

3) In the gaze of the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, we guess both admiring the endless expanses and true knowledge of the world around us.

4) Behind the snowy fog, neither the field nor the telegraph poles are visible.

5) This year, lilies and gladioli bloomed at the same time.

Answer:_______________________________________

16. Put punctuation marks:

Paraphrase is a figure of speech, which consists in replacing a word with a descriptive combination (1) containing (2) an element of the characteristic of the described object or person (3) and helping (4) to avoid unjustified repetitions in the text.

Answer:_______________________________________

17. Put punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers that should be replaced by commas in the sentence.

A compliment (1) as you know (2) is a flattering, kind remark or a brief praise, and the ability to give compliments is a real art that requires tact, wit and (3) of course (4) an attentive warm attitude to the interlocutor.

Answer:_______________________________________

18. Use punctuation marks : indicate the number(s) that should be replaced by a comma(s) in the sentence.

Lena is the main navigable East Siberian artery (1) whose significance (2) (3) for the intensively developing economy (4) is enormous.

Answer:_______________________________________

19. Use punctuation marks : enter all the numbers that should be replaced by commas in the sentence.

After a couple of hours (1) when it was already quite hot (2) and the crowd in the port froze (3) the boys got out of the city limits (4) and climbed the hill (5) from which the harbor is visible.

Answer:_______________________________________

Read the text and complete tasks 20-25.

(1) Only recently did man learn that the Earth is a ball. (2) They thought that the Earth stands on three elephants, and at night the starry world covers the Earth. (3) Now a person flies around the ball in less than two hours. (4)3 the ground can be seen from the side. (5) Here is a picture taken from space. (6) Yes, the Earth is a ball, continents, seas, clouds, sunrises and sunsets are visible on it. (7) The details of earthly life are not visible from afar, but they are, there are many of them ...

(8) Two decades ago, Americans conducted a survey of scientists: what did space flights give mankind? (9) The answers were interesting. (10) I remember this one: “We are alone in the Universe, and it doesn’t look like they are waiting for us somewhere. (11) We must take care of our home - our native Earth. (12) Good answer.

(13) Today, from the height of his knowledge, a person can say: "We got a wonderful planet." (14) In fact, there is water on the planet, without which life would be impossible. (15) The proximity of the Sun gives heat that does not dry out over time. (16) The rotation of the Earth ensures the alternation of days and nights on the planet, the change of seasons. (17) Green plants fill the atmosphere with oxygen, accumulate carbon and release life-giving oxygen and ozone into the upper layers of the atmosphere, covering all living things from the destructive rays of the Sun.

(18) Of course, for millions of years, the emerging life had to adapt to the initial conditions on the planet. (19) Living organisms gave way to more perfect ones on Earth. (20) Only bones survived from many animals. (21) But some have survived to our times. (22) Huge whales live in ocean water on the verge of extermination by humans, the largest creatures that have ever lived on Earth. (23) The smallest of the mammals are the tiny baby mouse and the shrew, weighing only two grams.

(24) Between whales and mice there is a huge number of animals to which the Earth has become a home. (25) And at the head of all things is man. (26) He often decides who lives and who is denied life.

(27) For millions of years Nature has selected animals, determining the places where they can live, what they can feed on. (28) A person has long studied these places and is the first to reach for prey, destroys the environment where animals, birds, fish habitually and safely live. (29) This is how the foundations of our common House are destroyed.

(30) Many animals have disappeared or become extremely rare. (31) For a long time we have not seen flying cranes, few people hear the current capercaillie, the cry of quails. (32) And so everywhere on Earth. (33) Two hundred years ago, Americans barbarously exterminated millions of bison, and in the middle of the last century, chemistry knocked down the cult bird in America - the bald eagle. (34) In Africa, thousands of rhinos were destroyed over large areas: land was needed for sowing grain. (35) The areas of hot deserts and wastelands are growing, fertile lands are being depleted, lakes are drying up, small rivers are disappearing on the plains.

(36) This is what the scientist had in mind when he answered the question about space. (37) We need to protect planet Earth. (38) Nobody is waiting for our landing on other planets. (39) And the Earth still feeds us, gives us breath, supplies water, warmth and joy of life coming from our neighbors: animals, birds, fish, insects that form a complex pattern of life on our planet.

(40) This is what the Earth looks like when you look at it from the side. (41) Outlines of the continents. (42) Traces of volcano activity. (43) Lights of big cities and small villages. (44) Lakes on land. (45) Islands in the ocean. (46) 3 land pitted with mines and fox holes. (47) 3 land covered with traces of animals, grain fields and curls of forests ... (48) Such is our common House.

(According to V. Peskov *)

*Vasily Mikhailovich Peskov (1930-2018) - writer, journalist, traveler.

20. Which of the statements correspond to the content of the text? Specify the answer numbers.

1) By their actions, people often cause damage to nature.

2) Man today can fly around the globe.

3) In the Universe, besides ours, there are other civilizations.

4) Our planet has everything necessary for life.

5) Huge whales live in the ocean, this species is not exterminated by man.

Answer:_______________________________________

21. Which of the following statements are true? Specify the answer numbers.

1) Sentences 14-17 confirm the content of sentence 13.

2) Sentences 10-11 contain reasoning.

3) Sentences 36-39 present the narrative.

4) Sentences 40-45 contain a description.

5) In sentences 46-47 reasoning is presented.

Answer:_______________________________________

22. From sentences 40-48 write out antonyms (an antonymous pair).

Answer:_______________________________________

23. Among sentences 18-26, find one that is related to the previous one using a personal pronoun. Write the number of this offer.

Answer:_______________________________________

Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks 20 – 23.

This fragment examines the language features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the gaps (A, B, C, D) with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. Write in the table under each letter the corresponding number.

Write the sequence of numbers in the ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of the task number 24, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas and other additional characters.

Write each number in accordance with the samples given in the form.

24. “Describing the diversity of life on Earth, V. Peskov uses various means of expression, including syntactic ones: (A) ___________ (sentences 6, 39) and (B) ___________ (sentences 41-43); lexical, for example, (B) ___________ ("large" - "small" in sentences 22-23). The author gives confirmation of his ideas about how to relate to nature, using the technique (D) ___________ (sentences 10-11)”.

List of terms:

1) litote

2) phraseological unit

3) nominal sentences

4) anaphora

5) quoting

6) epithet

7) metaphor

8) antonyms

9) rows of homogeneous members

Answer:

A

Part 2

25. Write an essay based on the text you read.

Formulate and comment on one of the problems posed by the author of the text (avoid over-quoting).

Formulate position of the author (narrator). Write whether you agree or disagree with the point of view of the author of the read text. Explain why. Argue your opinion, relying primarily on the reader's experience, as well as on knowledge and life observations (the first two arguments are taken into account).

The volume of the essay is at least 150 words.

A work written without relying on the text read (not on this text) is not evaluated. If the essay is a paraphrase or a complete rewrite of the source text without any comments, then such work is evaluated by zero points.

Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting.

ANSWERS

OPTION 14 USE-2015

to the tasks of part 1

№ tasks

TEXT INFORMATION

PART 2

Approximate range of problems

In 1949, as a result of the victory of the Soviet Union over Japanese imperialism, favorable conditions were created for the victory of the people's democratic revolution in China and the proclamation of the People's Republic of China.

From the first years of its existence, the PRC faced enormous difficulties. The country's economy was in decline. The heavy legacy of feudalism, prolonged imperialist expansion, and devastation have complicated the task of restructuring society. The main attention was paid to the restoration and development of the national economy. By 1952, the industry had exceeded the pre-war level of production. Agrarian reform 1950-1953 marked the beginning of the social transformation of the village.

In the early 50s. in China, a process of peaceful development of the people's democratic revolution into a socialist one is taking place, with a significant role played by the remaining petty-bourgeois and peasant structures. During the years of the first five-year plan (1953-1957), the foundation of socialist industry was laid, new branches of industry were created, and plans were outlined for the further development of the economy and the building of a socialist state.

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the centuries-old culture of China becomes public property for the first time in history. Cultural construction is underway, aimed at eliminating illiteracy, designed, judging by the programs, to develop the spiritual needs of the people, to promote their socialist education.

The cultural policy of the CPC during this period contributed to the development of national art forms, the assimilation of the traditions of ancient culture, and the development of non-traditional Chinese arts of European origin: theater, symphonic music, and cinematography. Much attention is paid to the study of the ancient architectural heritage, work is underway to protect and restore monuments of Chinese architecture, ancient temples, palaces, pagodas, and a “Decree on the protection of structures that are monuments of ancient culture” is being adopted. By 1958, more than 1600 objects were identified and taken under state protection. Such monuments of Chinese architecture as the Gugong and Yiheyuan palaces, the Temples of Heaven and Yonghegong in Beijing, etc. are being restored. Careful attitude to national traditional architecture is combined with attention to issues of modern architecture.

Under the new conditions, Chinese architecture is further developed. Every year the volume of construction work increases, and there is a need to develop plans for capital construction, linked with national plans for the development of the national economy.

However, since 1958, the internal political development of the PRC led to changes in the country's economy, to a decrease in the pace of development of the national economy. The tasks set in the second five-year plan (1958-1962) were not achieved. These features of China's development and the "cultural revolution" that began in 1965 had a negative impact on the urban planning and architecture of the PRC.

The development of the architecture of modern China is divided into several stages. At the first stage (1949-1952), when the country's economy and economy were being restored, the main tasks of architecture were determined by the need to eliminate the consequences of war and devastation. Relatively few factories and factories were restored, the sanitary condition of residential urban areas, especially slums, was somewhat improved, and separate public buildings were built.

At the second stage (1953-1959), during the years of the first and the beginning of the second five-year plan, as the material base strengthens and the industry develops, the volume of capital construction increases.

During these years, the development of Chinese architecture was associated with the search for new ways. There was practically no system of architectural and design institutions in the country; a few architects, mostly educated abroad, imitated the work of Western European architects, transferring the techniques of foreign architecture to Chinese architecture. In 1952, this trend was criticized as "a manifestation of bourgeois ideology in architecture." During these years, there were still private construction companies and architectural workshops. But already at the end of 1952, state construction and design organizations were created, such as the Beijing Design Institute, Promstroyproekt, the Shanghai Institute for the Design of Civil Buildings, provincial design institutes, and a number of research institutes for construction and architecture. In 1953, the Union of Architects of China and its printed organ, the journal Jiangzhu Xuebao (Bulletin of Architecture), were created.

In subsequent years, an attempt was made to create a modern architectural style based on the legacy of past eras. But the uncritical development of the heritage led to the fact that the problems of creating a new style were, in a number of cases, solved formally. In 1952-1955. this direction was expressed in the so-called style of "big roofs", when multi-storey modern public and residential buildings were completed with complex multi-tiered roofs with glazed tiles, reminiscent of the roofs of ancient palace and temple pavilions (Fig. 1). In 1955, this direction was criticized as "leading back to feudal culture."

For the Chinese reality of the 50-60s. characteristic is the attitude to political and ideological slogans as to a self-sufficient force subordinating real possibilities to itself and dictating near and far tasks, rates and forms of development. In architecture, this manifested itself in the desire to overcome the gap between the advanced countries of the world and China in the field of urban planning, build a significant number of public complexes, create mass cheap housing, and quickly solve the most acute housing problem with a single strong-willed effort in the shortest possible time.

Since 1955, the development of architecture has been carried out under the slogan "to design buildings that meet the requirements of practicality, economy, and, if possible, beauty." This, to a certain extent, relegated the artistic quality of architecture and construction to the background.

In 1956-1958. A set design method was developed, which consists in creating several series of normals, consisting of working drawings of typical assemblies, parts, individual rooms or groups of rooms, parts of buildings. Inlaid design was used in the development of projects for some industrial buildings, as well as administrative buildings, hostels, and hotels. In the second half of the 50s. work was carried out to create standards for the design of structures and structures, research and organizational work on standard design. But in general, standard design in China did not become widespread, since mass construction according to standard designs required the development of the construction industry.

In 1949-1959. Chinese architects, relying on the traditions of ancient culture, on the enthusiasm of the people, were able to achieve certain successes in the field of urban planning and architecture. A critical study of the heritage, acquaintance with the achievements of modern architecture and, above all, the architecture of the socialist countries contributed to this process.

The experience of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries was of great importance for the development of PRC architecture. A group of Soviet architects was directly involved in the design work together with Chinese architects, sharing their experience and knowledge with them. China received a large amount of project documentation for various types of buildings, structures, and technological processes. For many years, the Soviet Union provided the PRC with significant assistance in creating a modern industry. In 1953-1956. a number of agreements were signed to assist China in the construction and reconstruction of 211 large industrial facilities. In 1958-1959. their number increased by another 125 enterprises. The industrial enterprises built with the help of the Soviet Union became the basis of the material base of the country's industrialization.

The third stage in the development of PRC architecture - 1959-1964. - coincides in time with the period in the life of the country when the consequences of the political course of the "Great Leap Forward" began to appear and attempts were made to correct these consequences, which directly affected the architecture. The volume of capital construction was reduced, the development of architecture slowed down, its direction changed. The course of “walking on two legs”, building “more, faster, better, more economically”, which became widespread during this period, was expressed in the desire to achieve a quantitative leap at any cost. In this regard, the use of local building materials, structures, semi-handicraft methods of building construction has increased. Many are building semi-permanent and temporary low-rise residential, public and industrial premises with the simplest equipment.

The fourth stage in the development of Chinese architecture, which began in 1965, is taking place in difficult conditions. The implementation of many previously outlined plans in the field of urban planning and architecture was slowed down or postponed, and the tasks facing them were limited.

One of the features of the architectural practice of China is the leveling of manifestations of the creative individuality of architects. Design institutes act as the authors of the projects, which does not contribute to the manifestation of the individual features of the creativity of individual architects. State policy did not contribute to the creation and development of creative schools and trends in architecture, limiting local specifics to taking into account climatic conditions and the formal assimilation of some local traditional methods of solving buildings.

Urban planning of the People's Republic of China developed in specific conditions associated with the need to transform Chinese cities.

By the middle of the XX century. There are two types of cities in China. One group is formed by the industrial cities of Shanghai, Tianjin, Guangzhou (Canton), Wuhan, and others. In these cities, separate areas (settlemen) were created for foreigners, in sharp contrast to the rest of the disadvantaged quarters, areas of shacks, slums, characteristic of Chinese cities.

The other group includes Beijing, Nanjing, Xi'an, Suzhou, and others, in which planning principles, formed in ancient periods of urban development, in particular, the regular nature of planning, have been preserved to varying degrees.

Since the founding of the PRC, the solution of urban problems has been recognized as one of the important state tasks.

In the period 1949-1952. the state did not have the opportunity to carry out the reconstruction of cities and limited urban development work to the partial improvement of some areas, the laying of individual highways, engineering networks, and the selective construction of individual buildings. In subsequent years, the volume of urban development work increased, their nature changed. There is a transition to the design and construction of residential areas, the development of master plans for cities, and a number of district planning projects.

In 1953-1956. on the basis of Soviet experience, the main normative documents are being developed that determined the state policy in the field of urban planning.

2. Beijing. Tiananmen Square. Reconstruction 1958-1959 General plan of the area. General form. The master plan for the development of Beijing for 1949-1957. Perspective plan for the development of Beijing. Western residential area: 1 - existing development; 2 - projected building; 3 - main highways; 4 - historical and architectural ensembles

3. Changchun. The working village of the car factory. Fragment of a residential building. Village plan

In 1953-1959. in the PRC, planning projects were completed for 150 cities with a population of more than 200 thousand inhabitants each and a large number of projects for county centers and other settlements. Master plans for the reconstruction and development of Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, Taiyuan, and others have been drawn up. This is typical, in particular, for cities that were formed in the previous period, such as Shanghai, Guangzhou, Harbin, Tanjin. In other cases, the ancient city serves as a historical core, around which, or near it, new districts are built. Examples of cities of this type are Beijing, Xi'an, Luoyang, Changchun (Fig. 3). In some cases, already existing, as a rule, small provincial towns become strongholds for the creation of new industrial centers: Baotou, Fulaerji, Lanzhou, etc.

Beijing, the capital of China, can serve as an example of the development of an ancient city. In February 1950, the first urban construction plan was adopted. In 1950-1952 individual measures were taken to reconstruct Beijing, providing for a partial improvement in sanitary conditions and transport, in particular, in 1952, Longtan Park was created on the site of a slum in the southeastern part of the city.

started development of a master plan for the reconstruction of Beijing, which provides for mass housing and industrial construction outside the city limits, and the reconstruction of the old city (Fig. 2).

The long-term plan for the reconstruction and construction of the city combined the principles of radial-circular and regular planning. The old city with a rectangular grid of streets running in the latitudinal and meridional directions was defined as the compositional center of the future Beijing, its historical, political and cultural center.

There were two axial highways passing through the city center. One of them coincides with the so-called "Great Beijing Axis", the main planning axis of ancient Beijing. It was planned to create two ring and several radial highways to connect new areas with each other.

In the first half of the 50s. construction within the city walls was limited to the construction of several public and administrative buildings. Later, the first residential quarters began to be built in the southern part of Beijing. Outside the city walls, new districts are emerging.

To the north, the area of ​​universities is developing, to the west - the area of ​​mass housing construction and office buildings; residential areas and industrial enterprises are being built to the east.

In the mid 50s. reconstruction is underway. Tiananmen and st. Chang'anjie, an axial highway that crosses the city from west to east and links the already built new areas with the city center. The history of the square in front of the Tiananmen Gate dates back to the 13th century. at the beginning of the 15th century. it took on a form that was preserved until the middle of the 20th century, and was the front courtyard of the imperial palace. In connection with the beginning of the reconstruction of the city, the Pailou gate, part of the walls of the front courtyard were gradually demolished, and in 1958 the remaining part, along with the Qianbulang galleries. An attempt was made to unite into a single ensemble the ancient buildings of the imperial palace (Tiananmen Gate, etc.), the monument to national heroes, as well as the newly built House of the National People's Congress of China, the Chinese History Museum and the Museum of the Chinese Revolution, towering in the western and eastern parts of the reconstructed area ( Fig. 2).

The architectural appearance of the square is determined by the symmetrical solution that underlies its layout, and the emphasized significance of the House of the National People's Congress.

The physical dimensions of Tiananmen Square turned out to be exaggerated and it does not correspond to the existing scale of the old part of the city and does not have sufficient development in the entire structure of Beijing.

Thus, the results of the reconstruction showed that the problems of a harmonious combination of new and old buildings, preserving the color characteristic of Beijing could not be solved.

The features of Beijing's urban development are largely determined by the rapid growth of the population, which in just 6 years (1950-1956) increased from 1350 thousand to almost 4 million people. The general plan provided for an increase in the population to 5 million people. According to available data, already by 1973 the population of the capital exceeded this figure.

Significant construction took place in Shanghai, China's largest industrial center, whose population in 1949 numbered 5.56 million people, and together with suburban areas - 10 million people.

In the mid 50s. A 20-year plan for the reconstruction of Shanghai was developed, which provided for the creation of a ring of new industrial and residential areas with a population of 100-200 thousand inhabitants each, separated from the old Shanghai by a green belt. At the same time, while remaining one of the largest industrial centers of the country, Shanghai does not receive much development. In general, there was a qualitative improvement in its production base without significant quantitative growth. In 1971, the population of Shanghai was 5.7 million people.

In Beijing, Shanghai and other cities of the PRC, new industrial enterprises were located in industrial areas, but in most cases residential areas were built near the enterprises, as was the case in Changchun, where a car factory and residential quarters for car factory workers were built (1959).

New industrial districts have emerged in Wuhan, a large and complex urban area in Central China. Since ancient times, it included Wuchang, Hankou, Hanyang, separated by the Yangtze and Hanshui rivers. The construction of bridges, including a large bridge across the Yangtze (1958), carried out with the help of Soviet specialists, made it possible to unite these cities into a single whole. In the decade after 1949, the city grew and its population doubled. The long-term plan for the development of the city provided for the preservation and development of the already established functional ties between the individual parts of Wuhan: Hankou is developing as a trade and transport center, Hanyang - an industrial center, Wuchang - an administrative and cultural center. The first residential areas are being built, including a number of residential quarters with cultural and consumer services for the workers of the Wuhan Iron and Steel Works (Fig. 4, 9).

The development of Wuhan was based on the principle of creating separate residential areas grouped around community centers, with the general development of the city along the river and deep into the coastal zone.

Such ancient cities as Xi'an, Hefei and others are being developed. By the end of the 60s. The population of Xi'an has tripled since 1949 and reached 1,300,000 people. At the same time, in recent years, the further growth of the city has been limited only by the needs of the existing industry, as well as the stabilization of the population.

Hangzhou, which has a history of more than 2 thousand years, known for its parks and excellent climate, originally developed as a resort and health center. Around the lake A zone of sanatoriums and rest houses has been created in Sihu and to the south of it. In the future, the city begins to grow to the north, where the main residential areas and many universities are located (Fig. 5). In the early 70s. The population of Hangzhou amounted to about 700 thousand people, the city began to develop as an industrial center: about 200 thousand workers are employed at large enterprises.

More than 6 times the population Hefei, the center of Anhui Province, which has become a new industrial center of the country. The most rapid growth of the city took place before 1965 (Fig. 6).

This situation is typical for other cities in China. During this period, significant urban development work was carried out in the cities of Tianjin, Harbin, Anshan, Nanjing, Changchun, Shenyang.

It should be noted that the implementation of most of the urban planning projects developed has met with significant difficulties. The most interesting urban planning ideas did not go beyond the scope of project proposals, in particular, the master plan for the development of Lanzhou was not implemented, in which there is a clear functional zoning of the urban area, convenient connections between districts. This project is also interesting as an example of the city's ribbon development.

Fragmentation remained a characteristic feature of Chinese urban planning, when the development of sometimes even large areas did not contribute to the solution of the main provisions laid down in the master plan for the development of the city.

In the second half of the 60s - early 70s. in the field of urban planning, the orientation towards the dispersal of the population and industry throughout the country on the basis of the creation of regional centers based on local resources is becoming predominant. Decentralization of production facilities was seen as a means to accelerate the relatively uniform development of the regions. At the same time, it was supposed to bring the city and the countryside closer together on the basis of the urbanization of rural settlements and the deurbanization of cities. In practice, this was reflected in the reduction of appropriations for construction, the adoption of measures to reduce the urban population, which was facilitated by the mass resettlement to the village for "re-education" - especially young people.

As the industrial base strengthened, capital housing construction grew. For 1949-1959 about 160 million m2 of residential buildings were built with public funds. Separate houses and groups of buildings, quarters and residential areas with a population of up to 30-140 thousand inhabitants were built. The average number of storeys of the new residential development did not exceed 3-4 floors, with simultaneous development, as a rule, buildings of one storey were used. The building density, depending on the number of floors and types of houses, was taken from 120 to 550 people / ha, in some cases it exceeded these figures.

In major cities - Shanghai, Beijing and others - in the 50s. the system of building residential areas on the basis of the principle: block, group of blocks, residential area became widespread. According to this scheme, in the north-west of Shanghai built caoyang residential area, the first phase of which was completed in 1953 with an area of ​​24 hectares (Fig. 7). Three quarters with line buildings with an area of ​​3-4 hectares each form a group of quarters, which includes an elementary school, a kindergarten, a nursery, and a market. Caoyang consists of three such groups, separated by highways, at the intersection of which a community center has been erected with a general store, a club, a cinema, a post office and other service enterprises. The development is monotonous due to a very limited number of types of residential buildings and, as a result, the accepted method of planning.

After 1959, attempts were made to bring the service network closer to housing. The new type of planning is based on a residential group for 2 thousand inhabitants, which is part of a quarter with a population of 5-10 thousand inhabitants and an area of ​​no more than 30 hectares. The residential microdistrict has a population of up to 30 thousand and covers an area of ​​about 100 hectares. This structure underlies the layout of several districts of Shanghai. With mass development, two levels of service are provided, the first includes a canteen, a kindergarten and a nursery, the second includes a department store, a market, an elementary school, etc.

Later, in the early 1960s, the size of the residential group and quarter decreased. In the quarters, a service group is provided, and in the microdistrict - a microdistrict center. Minxing and Zhangmiao microdistricts in Shanghai were built according to a similar scheme.

One of the first examples of complex construction was the construction in Beijing in 1953. Baiwanzhuang residential area for employees of state institutions (Fig. 8). To the west of the city walls there are five residential blocks with a total area of ​​about 21 hectares. Baiwanzhuang occupies a rectangular area and has a perimeter building of 3-story brick houses. In the depths of the quarters there is an elementary school, nurseries and kindergartens, a cooperative building of shops and consumer service workshops, and a club.

A more picturesque layout is characteristic of a residential area in Guangzhou, the first stage of which was built in 1955-1956. On three hills along the relief, a two-story estate-type building is picturesquely located. The community center of the district includes a school, shops, cafes and other facilities.

In housing construction, Chinese architects used both regular and picturesque planning, using perimeter, row, point and mixed buildings. New residential areas were built, as a rule, in free territories or on the site of urban slums. A significant part of them was associated with the construction of industrial enterprises.

The selective construction of residential buildings in the established areas of Chinese cities has not become widespread.

The increased demand for residential construction has led to the emergence of new types of buildings that were almost never seen in China before. These are primarily 3-5-storey sectional, corridor and gallery houses. When designing and constructing such buildings, foreign experience was taken into account, in particular the experience of the Soviet Union. At the same time, the experience of national architecture was taken into account, and attempts were made to transfer some features characteristic of the Chinese traditional dwelling into new construction. In some projects of multi-storey buildings, the arrangement of courtyards was envisaged, which created the best conditions for aeration of apartments. In the central and southern regions of the country, residential buildings with loggias, outdoor galleries, open staircases, etc., are relatively widespread (Fig. 10).

For the cities of China, with the exception of certain areas of large cities, such as Shanghai, Guangzhou, as a whole, until 1949, buildings of 1-2 floors were typical. Therefore, along with buildings of 4-5 floors in the 50-60s. various types of 1-2-storey residential buildings with a courtyard are being developed. The possibility of blocking some types was envisaged; in some cases, residential cells were grouped around a landscaped courtyard, creating a new method of building, close to the traditional estates of southern China. Such buildings were erected in urban settlements, residential areas of large and small cities.

In the 50s. in cities and industrial towns, sectional houses 3-4 floors high with 2-4 apartments per floor and apartments from 2 to 4 rooms are becoming widespread. In 1955, the estimated norm of living space was determined at 4-4.5 m 2 per person. In subsequent years, it was supposed to increase it to 5-6 m 2 . In practice, it was much lower, which led to the spread of the principle of room-by-room resettlement of families. In this regard, projects of two-room apartments are spreading. In particular, the section of the standard project No. 9014 for Beijing has three two-room apartments with an average area of ​​33 m 2 . They are intended for room-by-room settling. In other cases, as, for example, in project No. 8014, also developed for Beijing, the section has three small-sized two-room apartments with an area of ​​23 m 2 and is intended for apartment-by-apartment settlement (Fig. 11).

Projects of mass housing construction in the first half of the 60s. reflected the desire for economical housing, an increase in the output of living space, the reduction to a minimum of utility rooms and the range of sanitary equipment. The sizes of apartments and rooms were reduced.

The search for solutions that take into account local conditions has led to the creation of a number of projects for individual cities, provinces, districts and zones in China. So, in 1955, the first projects were developed for the zones, in 1961, projects were created for some provinces. These projects, not being typical, played the role of original standards.

In mass housing construction, structures and materials designed for traditional construction methods were used: rubble or brick foundations, brick transverse or longitudinal load-bearing walls, interfloor ceilings in the form of small brick vaults, and tiled roofs.

Some development of the building industry base has led to a wider use of precast concrete parts in residential construction. At the end of the 50s. the design and construction of individual large-block residential buildings, including buildings from vibro-brick panels, began, but in general, the construction of buildings by industrial construction methods did not leave the stage of experimental construction and amounted to an insignificant part in the total volume of housing construction.

Since the mid 60s. housing construction is reduced to a minimum. The solution to the housing problem is postponed indefinitely. In connection with the slogan “prepare for famine, prepare for war,” many shelters and underground structures are being built. The volume of construction of schools, universities, trade and other enterprises is being reduced.

construction public buildings occupies an important place in the architecture of China.

In connection with the development of housing construction, kindergartens and preschool groups at schools, kindergartens designed for 2-3 shifts lasting 3-4 hours, daytime kindergartens, where children stay 8-12 hours, and around the clock, from where children leave only for Sunday. Kindergartens and nurseries were built according to individual projects. Examples of such structures are June 1 kindergartens and Xizhaosy in Beijing (Figure 12), a nursery school for 300 children in Shanghai, where the kindergarten building complex includes five pavilions with two group rooms, each with utility rooms. There are playgrounds and an administrative building on the site.

The construction of schools developed rapidly, in particular, primary and secondary schools for 600-1350 students are being built. The bulk of educational buildings are built according to individual projects or reuse projects. The layout of the schools is varied: with internal corridors, outdoor open galleries, etc.

13. Beijing. Public buildings. 1954-1958 Ministry of Construction. Ministry of Water Resources

14. Beijing. Yubinguan Hotel. Xincao Hotel

15. Beijing. Hotel of Nationalities. 1958-1959 General form. Plan

16. Beijing. Public buildings. 1954-1958 Radio House. Exhibition Complex

In a number of cities in the PRC, especially in Beijing and in the central cities of the provinces, a large number of administrative buildings have been built. The architectural appearance of public buildings in all regions of the country was characterized by a combination of rectangular volumes, different in height and length. Their height is from 3 to 6-7 floors, and the central part, which is higher, is emphasized by the large rhythm and pattern of openings, decorative elements and complication of forms. In plan, public buildings are a combination of rectangular figures that form rather complex compositions with a clearly defined central axis.

A large number of public and administrative buildings were built starting from the first half of the 50s. in Pekin.

Among them is the building of the State Economic Committee with somewhat heavy, tower-like volumes in the center and at the corners, completed with traditional two-tier roofs; The Ministry of Construction, whose laconic forms are enlivened by decorative elements dating back to national architecture. More restrained architectural appearance of buildings Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Construction and Ministry of Water Resources(Fig. 13).

Considerable attention is paid to the construction of hotels. In 1952-1958. a number of hotels are being built, including the Heping (World) Hotel, the new building of the Beijing Hotel, the Qianmen Hotel, "Xinqiao", which is one of the characteristic examples of buildings of this type.

In the architecture of some public buildings, especially those built in the early 50s, in particular in hotel complex "Yubinguan"(1954-1955), reflected the desire to create a new style, using the forms of national architecture. This led to a passion for massive multi-cornice roofs, direct borrowing of the forms of ancient temple and palace architecture, and created a contradiction between the architectural image and the constructive scheme (Fig. 14).

In 1959, a 12-story building was built in Beijing Hotel of Nationalities for 1200 seats. On the first, higher floor, there are lobbies, lobby, administration, restaurants of European and Chinese cuisine. The building is made in a reinforced concrete frame. The use of the frame determined the clear rhythm of the façade, enlivened by balconies and the first floor protruding from the plane of the wall and a large portico in the center, which give the hotel's architecture a peculiar flavor (Fig. 15).

An example of successful cooperation between Soviet and Chinese architects was the construction exhibition complex in Beijing(architect V. Andreev, 1954) and home radio(architect D. Chechulin, 1958) (see Fig. 16).

In 1958, a building of the Central Telegraph. This rectangular 7-storey building with a clock tower is made of reinforced concrete structures, characterized by a more innovative approach to architectural forms (Fig. 17). In the mid 50s. A number of department stores are under construction in Beijing, including Central department store and department stores, which have become shopping centers for Beijing's new residential areas (see Figure 18).

Many spectacular buildings, assembly halls, etc. are being built in the PRC. Among them building of the People's Political Consultative Council(1955) theaters "Shoudou"("Capital") and "Tiancao"(“Sky Bridge”) in Beijing (1954-1955), the Palace of Culture in Chongqing, the theater in Wuhan (1961), etc. (Fig. 19, 20, 22).

In 1955 it was built. A clear and precise plan, the laconic form of the facades, which are distinguished by some severity, without external decoration, make it possible to classify this building as one of the successful examples of theatrical structures in China (Fig. 21).

In some cases, the architecture of theaters, especially those intended for staging performances of the national theater, in particular Chinese opera, is dominated by forms of traditional architecture, as, for example, in the Jinjiang Theater, Chengdu (1954). High tiled roofs, paintings on beams and brackets, galleries and courtyards create a national flavor. The original layout, which includes park elements as an integral part, continues the traditions of the Chinese theater and reveals potential opportunities for the further development of theater buildings.

23. Beijing. Palace of Sports. 1955 General view. Plan

24. Beijing. Stadium. 1958-1959 Plan of the central arena. General form

The design of theater buildings in China follows strict regulations: the lobby and foyer are small, there are no wardrobes, the size of the stage and stage equipment is limited, partly due to the climate and the characteristics of the national theater, which does not require a lot of scenery.

The construction of clubs and Palaces of Culture has received significant development. Among them are the Palaces of Culture and clubs in Tianjin, Harbin, Shenyang, Kunming and other cities of China.

The construction of cinemas was carried out on a smaller scale and was concentrated mainly in new residential areas. A 1,500-seat wide-screen cinema "Shugun" ("Dawn") was built in Nanjing. Its layout, the interiors of the hall and other rooms meet modern requirements. In the architecture of the cinema, the desire to create new forms, taking into account local architectural traditions, is noticeable.

In 1955, on the territory of about 100 hectares, a citywide sports center, including except Beijing Sports Palace playing and training fields, playgrounds, various sports facilities (Fig. 23).

The Sports Palace is a complex of three buildings connected by arcades with closed passages at the level of the second floor. The central part with a hall for 6,000 seats dominates with its mass and height, the side buildings house a swimming pool and training rooms.

In the external appearance of this building, an attempt was made to combine new planning and design techniques with the forms of traditional architecture. This was manifested in the completion of the roof, in the details of balconies and niches, in decoration and ornamentation.

Sports complexes, halls, swimming pools, stadiums were built in Nanjing, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Wuhan and other cities of China.

In the eastern suburbs of Beijing in 1958 was built Gongzhen Stadium. It is a complex that includes a central sports arena with two-tier stands for 80,000 spectators (Fig. 24). The facade of the central arena with a deep gallery on the ground floor and narrow bands of windows on the upper floors ends with a cornice. The deep shadows of the cornice and gallery enliven the building and break some of the monotony caused by the correct alternation of horizontal and vertical articulations of the facade. In 1959-1960. a large indoor sports hall for 10,000 seats is being built. Its appearance is in tune with the central sports arena.

25. Beijing. House of the National People's Congress. 1958-1959 General form. Plan

26. Beijing. Museum of the Chinese Revolution and the History Museum of China. 1958-1959 Plan. General form

27. Beijing. Palace of Culture of Nationalities. 1958-1959 General form. Plan

28. Beijing. New station. 1958-1959 General view, plan

In 1958-1959. built in Beijing House of the National People's Congress, the largest building in the capital (Fig. 25). Its facades with porticos and colonnades are monumental. In the central part there is a hall for 10 thousand seats, in the northern part there is a banquet hall for 5 thousand seats.

The architectural appearance of the nearby complex of buildings of the Museum of the Chinese Revolution and the Historical Museum somewhat monotonous (Fig. 26). In terms of museums, they are two U-shaped buildings, opened towards each other and connected by a central part with a vestibule, a foyer, a conference hall and an open colonnade that enlivens the western facade of the ensemble.

One of the major structures built in Beijing is Palace of Culture of Nationalities(Fig. 27). Its central part is completed by a 13-story tower. Roofs made of glazed tiles with slightly raised ends, white wall tiles, carved decorations, gallery railings, stone stained-glass windows of the portico create a unique and memorable appearance of the building. It houses a museum, a library, a cinema and concert hall, a restaurant, a gym and a hotel.

The multi-stage volume of the building of the Military Museum is completed by a tower with a spire with a total height of about 100 m.

It is worth mentioning the complex of buildings of the All-China Agricultural Exhibition, located on the territory of 50 hectares.

One of the first experiments in the design and construction of large reinforced concrete structures was the construction in 1959. new beijing station(Fig. 28). It has a clear planning structure, due to the technological scheme. The waiting rooms are connected to platforms covered by awnings, a walkway at the second floor level and three underground tunnels.

In 1962, the construction of the Museum of Fine Arts - the All-China Palace of Artistic Works - was completed. In its architecture, the search for solutions based on ancient traditions was continued, an attempt was made to embody the features of the national character in architectural forms, which was reflected in tiled roofs, the traditional pattern of openings.

29. Beijing. University area. Institute of ferrous metallurgy. General form. Plan

33. Wuhan. Lake Donghu. Wellness complex. General plan scheme. General form. Ground floor plan

In the 50s - early 60s. the construction of buildings for higher educational institutions is underway. Existing universities are being expanded, new ones are being built in Tianjin, Xi'an, Shenyang, Shanghai and many others. To the north of Beijing, a district of higher education institutions emerged in the form of complexes, including educational and laboratory buildings, student dormitories, houses for teachers, sports and other facilities (Fig. 29).

Student dormitories, as a rule, are corridor-type buildings with a height of 3-5 floors. Rooms for 4, 6, 8 students are determined based on the norm of 2-3 m 2 per person.

Along with higher education institutions, buildings of research institutes of the PRC Academy of Sciences and departments, as well as buildings of technical schools and schools for the training and education of cadre workers, are being erected in a number of cities.

For 1949-1959 the network of medical institutions and hospitals has increased significantly. In Beijing, the Soviet-Chinese Friendship Hospital, the Beijing City Hospital, Tongren Hospital and others. Typically, hospital departments are located in the same building, for example, the Beijing Xuanwu Hospital, a children's hospital with a polyclinic (Fig. 30). hospital buildings, as a rule, are built with a height of 4-5 floors. Their appearance is typical for public buildings of this period. In 1961-1963 attempts were made to typify hospitals, in particular, in Shanghai and Tianjin (Fig. 31, 32).

In the most beautiful areas of the country, such as Beidaihe, Qingdao, Lushan, Hangzhou, rest houses and sanatoriums were built. V Wuhan on the banks lake Donghu increased health complex, consisting of six sanatoriums (Fig. 33).

In the foothills of Xishan near Beijing in 1954 was built sanatorium for students of Asia and Africa(Fig. 34). In the architecture of individual buildings and the entire ensemble as a whole, there is a noticeable desire to use the motifs of traditional architecture in modern buildings. This was manifested in the use of tiled roofs, connecting galleries, pavilions, and rich decor.

Since the second half of the 60s. construction of public buildings is carried out to a lesser extent. Relatively more attention is paid to industrial facilities.

Architecture of industrial buildings and structures of China developed since the early 1950s. With the help of the Soviet Union, large industrial complexes, factories with multi-storey buildings and multi-bay workshops have been built. A large number of plants and factories have grown on the basis of small factories, handicraft workshops, which have undergone reconstruction (pp. 35, 36).

The Anshan Iron and Steel Works developed. In 1956, the creation of a second metallurgical base in Wuhan began. The construction of the Baotou plant with coke, metallurgical, pipe-rolling plants, and various auxiliary shops was underway.

Such enterprises as heavy engineering plants were built in Fulaerji, Taiyuan, and Shenyang. In 1958, the Luoyang Heavy Machine Building Plant and the Tractor Plant, as well as the Heavy Machine Tool Plant in Wuhan, went into operation. A complex of electric power equipment enterprises was built in Harbin, and the first automobile plant was built in Changchun.

Light and food industry enterprises were built (Fig. 37-39). Large textile mills were built in Peking and Zhengzhou, an artificial fiber plant was built in Andong, an artificial silk factory was built in Baoding, etc.

The use of modern design and planning solutions, a variety of types of structures have led to some progress in industrial architecture. There was a process of searching for new forms. A number of enterprises, such as the Beijing Electronic Tube Factory, are close in appearance to administrative buildings; others, like the Beijing Cotton Mill or the Auto Parts Factory, are of a modern industrial character; others, like the metal structure factory (Beijing), are the result of the introduction of national traditions into the appearance of modern industrial buildings.

Some experience has been accumulated in industrial design, which has contributed to the development of new trends in construction, such as the use of a modular system. On the basis of the achievements of Soviet industrial construction in the PRC, standard designs, prefabricated reinforced concrete structures, new building materials were used: expanded clay, lightweight concrete, etc. Large floor panels are used, including ribbed, with oval voids, prestressed, the length of the panels reaches 12 m. Multi-span prefabricated monolithic continuous arched structures are used.

In the design and construction of industrial buildings, sun protection devices were sometimes used. In the southern regions of the country in 1958-1959. On an experimental basis, the construction of open industrial buildings was carried out, in which, taking into account the specifics of production, an attempt was made to solve the issues of aeration and sun protection.

A number of hydroelectric power plants were built. Reconstructed in northeast China (Fig. 40). At the end of the 50s. the construction of a hydroelectric power station on the river. Huanghe. Construction of irrigation facilities, canals, reservoirs with earthen and reinforced concrete dams was carried out, such as the Fozilin reservoir and the Meishan reservoir on the river. Shihe in Anhui Province.

The construction after 1958, in connection with the “great leap forward” policy of a large number of low-capacity small and medium-sized enterprises using local materials, using the simplest structures, led not only to the dispersion of funds and a slowdown in the creation of a solid industrial base, but also to a decrease in the quality of construction and architecture .

In the 60s - 70s. in the field of industrial construction, architecture was focused on the design of a few objects, mainly related to the military industry, with the development of projects for large, medium and small enterprises using local resources.

Rural construction in China developed taking into account the specifics of the Chinese village. It was slow-moving and closely related to the traditions of Chinese rural architecture.

In connection with the formation of cooperatives and state farms in rural areas, the construction of new types of buildings for China, such as various farms, production workshops, warehouses, etc., began. other reinforced concrete elements. The construction of new buildings according to standard designs was insignificant and did not have a big impact on the appearance of the Chinese village. In the design of a rural residential building, the basic scheme of a traditional dwelling and, to a certain extent, its architectural appearance are preserved (Fig. 41).

A new stage in rural architecture began in the late 1950s and early 1960s, when, in connection with the creation of people's communes, the question arose of designing qualitatively new rural settlements. A number of master plans for people's communes were developed.

Of interest is the project of the central estate of the people's commune of Bolo County, Guangdong Province (Fig. 42).

These projects showed the possibilities for the transformation of the village and the prospects for further development of the architecture of the village. However, they did not have the necessary economic base, and the construction associated with them was not developed.

The architecture of the People's Republic of China is developing in difficult conditions. At the first stages of the development of modern Chinese architecture, attempts were made to comprehend the architectural heritage and develop its traditions. Certain successes have been achieved in the field of urban planning.

In the future, several factors influenced the development of Chinese architecture. One of them is the spread of nationalist tendencies associated with an overestimation of one's own experience and a downplaying of the experience of the socialist countries and other countries of the world. The exaggeration of the role of political slogans-symbols in the development of society, its economy and culture also affected the direction of architecture. These tendencies became especially pronounced in the late 1950s. i.e. from the period of the so-called "Great Leap Forward". The frequent change of tasks set before architecture and construction slowed down their development.

Since the mid-1960s, especially since the period of the "cultural revolution", appropriations for civil construction were reduced in connection with the task set.

The absence of special architectural buildings since 1965 makes it impossible to assess the state of architecture and construction in China in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Chapter "Architecture of the People's Republic of China". The General History of Architecture. Volume 12. Book two. Architecture of Foreign Socialist Countries, edited by N.V. Baranov.