c. 5¦ Copper-cast plastic - crosses, icons and folds - is a major national phenomenon of Russian artistic culture. In Ancient Russia, a cross was an obligatory accessory for every Christian, it accompanied him from birth to death, therefore crosses are the most massive and at the same time the most ancient type of copper-cast products. In the first centuries of the adoption of Christianity by Russia, crosses were worn not on the body, but over clothing "as clear indicators of Christian baptism." They baptized, blessed, admonished, healed with the cross, buried with the cross and body images. The most revered crosses and icons, often with relics and relics embedded in them, were inherited by the family and were family heirlooms.

They swore allegiance on the crosses. “The cross is small, but its strength is great”, - is written in the chronicle of the XII century. There are known copper crosses that belonged, according to legend, to the Russian saints Abraham of Rostov, Euthymius of Suzdal, Sergius of Radonezh and other historical figures. These crosses were reproduced many times at a later time, and the significance of a national shrine was attached to them.

Indeed, the mainstay of the Russian land were the saints, deeply revered by the people. This is confirmed by the numerous copper-cast icons and folds, to which the Russian people addressed with their sorrows and joys, with the words of prayer in vast expanses from the White Sea to the outskirts of Siberia ...

However, over the past century, that very special attitude to copper casting that existed in Russia for a millennium has turned out to be forgotten in the people's memory. Only oral and written sources have preserved and brought to our time some of the features of the existence of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds.

In the 19th century, the famous philologist and art critic F.I.Buslaev was one of the first to point out the meaning of copper icons and crosses. He noted that the originals, from which ancient Russian icon painters made copies, were small in size and this made it possible to carry them across the vast expanses of Russia, to bring them from distant countries. Metal folds were especially appreciated, replacing entire iconostases and saints. “These were shrines,” wrote F. I. Buslaev, “the most convenient for transferring, durable and cheap; therefore they are still in great use among the common people, especially among the schismatics. "

It is no coincidence that reports to the government in the first half of the 19th century reported: “The use of these icons and crosses, as you know, is ubiquitous throughout Russia; c. 5
c. 6¦ it has taken root for a long time between the common people, not excluding persons of the Orthodox confession, so that these icons are found in almost all huts and other dwellings and are hung in villages, over the gates of houses, on ships, etc. Moreover, the peasants bless with these icons their children who leave on long journeys or enter recruits, and these images then remain with them for a whole life. "

According to contemporaries, in the Arkhangelsk province, “in addition to the construction of churches and chapels, the custom is very widespread to hallow wooden crosses and pillars ... along the edges of the streets, at the entrances to villages, at crossroads, at places revered for some reason ... The images of a crucifix are simply carved into the crosses, and in the pillars are cast copper crosses, simple icons or with frames in vestments ... ”.

This tradition existed not only in the Russian North, Siberia and the Volga region, but also in Moscow. Back in the 19th century, eyewitnesses noted that “... on one of the spacious Zamoskvoretsky streets, which is not disturbed either by carriages or by the crowd of people, you will first see a long piece fence and cleverly crafted gates painted with oil paints motley, but with great taste. A copper frame has been cut over the gate. " Now it is rare, and only in remote northern villages, is it possible to find a cross with a copper-cast object fixed on it in the cemetery ...

The veneration of the copper cross was reflected in the popular conspiracies that existed in the Russian North before late XIX century. So, in the Olonets province, according to popular belief, in order to heal a sick person, one had to boil the "spoken" water by placing three copper crosses in it. By the cross-vest baked in bread, the mother tried to predict the fate of her son with the recruitment, breaking the bread into two halves.

The Russian bivalve cross-encolpion with the image of Our Lady of Kupyatitskaya is known as miraculous. Tradition connects the copper cross with the town of Kupyatichi (later the village of the Pinsk district of the Minsk province). On the site of the appearance of this cross in 1182, a wooden temple was erected, burned down during the invasion of the Mongol Tatars. But the copper image survived, became famous for many miracles and in 1656 was transferred to the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev.

In the popular environment, the value of the coil as a talisman was preserved until the 20th century. In Ukraine, young women wore such items as protective amulets to help with illness and childbirth. In the northern provinces of Russia, peasants wore serpentines with a cross on their chest, attributing to them "a miraculous power to satisfy suffering" when applied to sore spots.

The Old Believers had a very special attitude to the cast copper icons and folds, who venerated them as having passed the "purification" by fire, that is, "not by the hands of those who were created."

At the end of the 19th century, a connoisseur of Russian folk life S.V. Maksimov wrote about his meetings with Old Believers, who wore copper images in their bosoms and did not pray for other people's icons. They “take out their copper image from their bosom. Putting it somewhere on the shelf, they begin to pray hastily, soon ... Sitting down at the table to dine, these icons are placed across the table opposite themselves, in order to differ from the Orthodox in this too. " c. 6
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Amulets - small images and folds - accompanied the owner during long trips and travels. Often such copper-cast objects were found far beyond the borders of the Russian land. So, in 1780 off the coast of France during a storm the Russian ship "Glory to Russia" sank. Only 200 years later, 80 copper-cast icons and small folds belonging to Russian sailors were raised from the bottom. Similar items have been found in North Holland. Here, at the site of the battles of 1799 between the Anglo-Russian and Franco-Dutch troops, among the military relics, Russian folds were discovered with the image of Saints Nicholas the Wonderworker and Paraskeva Pyatnitsa. These small and modest objects brought to us the memory of unknown Russian soldiers who died in a foreign land ...

Often, the choice of copper-cast images was determined by popular prints ("healers") under the title "A Legend to Which Saints What Graces of Healing from God Are Given", which began to appear in the second half of the 18th century. Almost all the saints mentioned in these sheets were most often depicted on copper icons. In the middle of the 19th century, Archpriest Mikhail Diev wrote to the famous researcher of popular prints I. M. Snegirev that in the Kostroma province “the images of George the Victorious, Flora and Laurus and Blasius are copper trimmed in our side ... they wear horse-tails on their chests on trading days, and they keep them in houses ... together with images. "

In copper casting - a mass and production form of art - it is easy to identify the most revered saints. In the popular environment, the saints "demon-fighters" were considered the quickest helpers, protecting a person from the influence of evil forces. The Holy Martyrs Nikita, George, Theodore Stratilat, Theodore Tyron, Demetrius of Thessaloniki, the archangels Michael and Sikhail were victors of demons, usually depicted in the form of serpents and dragons.

The popularity of Saint Nikita, who was popularly called "besogon", is evidenced by the huge number of his images on vest crosses, encolpion crosses, serpentines and on individual images. In copper casting, only one plot from the apocrypha was reflected: “… stretch out your blessed hand, and [took] the devil and more firmly under you and step on his neck and crush him. ... And let us take off the fetters even [which] byah [were] on his leg and byashe the devil with fetters… ”. The presence in the house or on the body of a small cast icon with Nikita the Besogon, reading the text of the apocrypha about Nikita's torment and repeating the words of the prayer: "... depart, Satan, from this house and from this creation and from all these four walls and from four corners" - gave a person confidence in the patronage of the holy Martyr Nikita, in protection from all sorts of demonic intrigues and from everyday troubles.

The same veneration in Russia was enjoyed by the holy great martyr George the serpent fighter. On the copper-cast images and folds, the episode from the legend "The Miracle of George about the Dragon", so beloved among the people, was most often depicted. Among the large number of copper-cast objects with St. George, the openwork icons made using the perforated casting technique stand out. In their composition, the foundry masters included not only the figure of George sitting on a horse - in armor and a fluttering cloak, with a spear in his hand - but also the maiden Elisava leading the snake. How not to recall the lines of a spiritual verse sung by the Russian people:

And she leads the snake to eat,
Like a cow being milked ...

And according to folk legends, George was considered the patron saint of fields, the protector of domestic animals from death and various diseases, from being eaten by animals. In every Orthodox Russian home, one could find the image of another saint - St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, to whom more often than to other saints they turned with the prayer "for intercession from all sorts of troubles and misfortunes." Considering the strength and durability of copper icons, Russian sailors and travelers always had an icon with Nicholas the Wonderworker with them to pray for salvation on the waters. In copper casting, iconographic versions of Nikola the Wonderworker and Nikola Mozhaisky are most widely used. For all the traditionality of the image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker on copper-cast objects, the variety of decorative motifs is striking, giving everyone an amazing elegance. The centerpiece of the icon is surrounded by a modest smooth profiled frame, sometimes with an ornament in the form of rhombuses filled with multicolored enamel, or in the form of a vine, then with a completely outlandish ornament in the form of curls ... Not made by hands and cherubim - this is how a new image arose! The decorativeness of copper-cast icons is also enhanced by bright glassy enamels, from blue, white and light blue to rare shades of pink and lilac. On the small icons with Nikolai Mozhaisky, made using the perforated casting technique, the figure of a saint with a sword and a temple, for all the miniature image of the image, resembles monumental sculptural images.

Next to the icons of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, small copper-cast icons with the Great Martyr Paraskeva Friday look very modest. Among the people, Saint Paraskeva was revered as the patroness of fields and livestock, they prayed to her for all prosperity and domestic happiness, for deliverance from various ailments. Images and texts of prayers dedicated to "Saint Paraskevia, named Friday" were worn around the neck and considered a means of protecting against all kinds of diseases.

Hieromartyr Antipas was known as a healer among the people. And on the copper-cast icons with his image, two letters are clearly visible: "Z" and "C", that is, "dental healer". They turned to this saint with a prayer for deliverance from a toothache: "... I offer you a prayer, let us pray for me, a sinner, to the Lord God for the forgiveness of my sins, and save me from unabated dental illness with prayers, holy, yours ...". In the "Legend to which saints what graces of healing were given from God," the saints are mentioned who helped a person in everyday troubles. In copper casting, these saints are often represented by specific groups. For example, a small icon depicts the Hieromartyr Charalampius together with the martyrs John the Warrior and Boniface. The unification of the three saints was caused by their extraordinary popularity among the people. They turned to John the Warrior, or, as he was also called, the "Warrior", in order to regain the stolen things and even the escaped servants. The prayer to him contains the following lines: "... save from all evil, intercede from the offending person ...". They also asked Boniface "to get rid of the wine drinking". They prayed to protect Saint Charalampius from sudden death without repentance, which could overtake a person.

The holy martyrs Guri, Samon and Aviv, the guardians and protectors from family troubles, were especially revered by women. That is why these saintly saints were so often depicted on copper-cast images, to whom they turned to "if the husband hates his wife innocently." The holy martyrs Kirik and Julita were to help in protecting children from illness. Small icons, very modest and cheap, the surface of which was decorated only with an ornament resembling wood carving, accompanied the Russian woman throughout her life. c. eight
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Finally, the Russian people could not do without the patronage of Saints Blasius, Modest, Florus and Laurus ... “For deliverance from the beastly case” they asked Saint Modest and Hieromartyr Blasius, and the martyrs Florus and Laurus - “from the case of horses”. Caring for the "beloved peasant belly" - as the livestock was often called - did not leave the owner either at home or on the way. Therefore, they took with them on the road a small cast copper fold or an icon with images of such revered saints.

The Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky were considered the patrons of the bees. The people even compiled special prayers for the abundance and preservation of bees in the hives: "... Izosima and Savvatey, have mercy on my prayers for the servant of God in the courtyard or in the forest, at the bee house of young and old bees ...". On the copper-cast icons one can see the Russian saints Zosima and Savvaty against the background of the walls and towers of the Solovetsky Monastery, and at their feet - “the White Sea and endless forests ...”. On very small images and icons, it was possible to depict the silhouettes of churches, rivers, grasses, flowers of the Russian land, glorified by numerous saints ... Isn't that why the background on small icons with St. Sergius of Radonezh is “woven” with flowers? Herbs and flowers spread under the feet of the horsemen of the holy princes Boris and Gleb. Images of these first Russian saints appeared on the ancient crosses-encolpions. When looking at the copper-cast icons, often decorated with enamels or made using the perforated casting technique, one recalls the lines from the Legend of the Holy Princes: “... You are our weapon, the land of the Russian defense and support, double-edged swords, they overthrow the insolence of the filthy and trample the devilish intrigues on the earth ... ".

And throughout Russia, in every home, people turned to the Mother of God as “an ambulance and a warm intercessor”. In the already mentioned "Legend to which saints what kind of healing grace from God are given", the icons of the Mother of God of Kazan, Feodorovskaya, Tikhvin and Burning Bush are named. The Mother of God of Kazan prayed for the enlightenment of the blind. The Mother of God of Feodorovskaya was addressed with a prayer "for deliverance from the difficult birth of wives." "For the preservation of the health of babies" asked the Mother of God of Tikhvin. The Russian people considered the Mother of God the Burning Bush as a guardian against fire and lightning. In folk life, they sometimes walked around a burning building with this image of the Mother of God to quickly extinguish the fire ... There were many copper-cast icons and folds with revered images of the Mother of God, but images and icons of the Mother of God are especially loved among the people. Joy of all who sorrow. Apparently, they very often turned to the Mother of God with their sorrows, and in gratitude rubbed the copper image with chalk or brick to shine ... So they came to us, completely erased, retaining traces of their past life.

It is impossible to cover all the variety of artistic copper casting, with its iconographic types, forms, richness of ornamentation and colors of enamels! Basically, these works came from various foundries of the XVIII-XIX centuries. But the casting created in the "copper shop" of the famous Vygovsky Old Believer community, which became a model for numerous imitations up to the beginning of the 20th century, was especially revered ...

Here, at the end of the 17th century, on the distant Karelian land, on the Vyga River, which is forty kilometers from the town of Povenets, the Old Believers' monastery began its life. In her workshops, icons were painted, books were decorated with exquisite Pomor ornament, c. 9
c. 10¦ and with the opening of the “copper shop” no one left the monastery without a cast copper fold or an icon ... One of the eyewitnesses describes the monastery at the end of the 18th century as follows: “Near the (leather) factory there is a copper smelting factory, where copper images and folds are cast in two forges, koi in another building are polished, made with enamel and sold to visiting pilgrims ... ”.

Most often, crosses and crossings are found among the casting of the Vygov workshop. Among the latter, the Deisus tricuspid folds were in great demand. They were cast different sizes- from a small, travel one, for wearing on the chest to a large solemn image for a prayer house. It was here that folds of new iconographic types were born. Among them - the three-winged folding "Deesis with selected saints", or, as it is often called, "Nine". Indeed, there are nine figures on the fold. In the centerpiece there is the Savior on the throne with the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Baptist, on the left wing there are depicted the Apostle John the Theologian, Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker and Metropolitan Philip, on the right - the Guardian Angel and the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky. How thoughtful is the selection of selected saints in the fold! Saints Zosima, Savvaty and Metropolitan Philip were associated with the Solovetsky Monastery, the successor of the traditions of which the Old Believer monastery on Vyga considered itself. The Guardian Angel and Nicholas the Wonderworker were perceived as patrons of the entire monastery, and everyone who became the owner of this fold. Nicholas the Wonderworker was also depicted on a fold, on the doors of which you can see the Mother of God Joy of All Who Sorrow, the chosen saints with the martyrs Kirik and Iulita. These flaps were often cast as separate images, so popular among the folk.

To this day, Vygovskie bivalve very small folds with the Mother of God of the Sign and the Old Testament Trinity evoke admiration. The craftsmen did not forget to decorate the turnover with a large flower and cover both sides with shiny enamels. But the glory of the Vygovskaya "mednitsa" was brought by the four-winged folding with the image of the Twelve Great Holidays - the so-called "large festive frames". This fold, which is a whole marching iconostasis, was extremely popular and not only among the Old Believers. Everything in this copper-cast monument - both the form and the thoroughness of the elaboration of miniature hallmarks, and the ornament of the outer side of the second wing - testifies to the talent and high skill of the foundry workers of the famous "copper shop". And they dispersed throughout Russia, right up to the taiga sketes of Siberia, Vygov copper-cast folds, crosses, icons ... After the closure of the monastery in the middle of the 19th century, the traditions of foundry were continued by the masters of Pomorie, Moscow, the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia - not to list the numerous foundries, yes and we know too little about them ... I would like to believe that someday the names of the talented Russian foundry masters will become known. And then in a new light these modest icons and folds will appear before us, retaining the warmth of the fire of the distant "copper" ...

Monuments of copper artistic casting make up the most numerous group of church objects that have appeared in Russia since the adoption of Christianity. Initially, works of this kind of Christian art were imported from Byzantium, as evidenced by numerous archaeological finds in Chersonesos, Kiev and other cities of southern Russia. c. 10
c. eleven¦ Greek samples were copied and later processed depending on the tastes and needs of the local population. However, the imported products could not meet the demand for items of personal piety, intended primarily for domestic use. Therefore, in Kievan Rus, by the beginning of the 12th century, their serial production was being established.

The material from which these products were made not only left an imprint on the artistic features of objects, the nature of the images, but in itself had a deep symbolic meaning. The widespread use of copper for casting encolpion crosses, vests, icons, serpentines and folds was not accidental. As a metal, copper was attributed to magical properties. The vest crosses had to be necessarily copper, since, according to the biblical tradition, the prophet Moses made "a brass serpent and put it on a banner, and when the serpent stung a man, he, looking at the brass snake, remained alive."

Items of copper art casting are divided into several types: pectoral crosses (from three to twelve pointed); pendant icons of various shapes; pectoral crosses-encolpions (bivalve for embedding relics and other shrines) with movable domes, bilateral and one-sided, as a rule, with fixed domes; serpentines with a Christian image on the front side, on the back - heads (masks) surrounded by snakes or a serpentine figure; bivalve icons-encolpias with movable domes; icons are double-sided and one-sided with an eyelet for hanging; panagia, as a rule, bivalve, good (road) with a movable or fixed head; folding (from two to four doors); squares and centerpieces of the Gospels or matrices for them; liturgical items (censer, cents, etc.); choros, consisting of separate copper-cast openwork plates and relief figures, later mounted on the base.

All these types of products, coexisting and complementing each other, had different purposes: most of them were designed for individual use, some were used to decorate church utensils, liturgical books, and icon lamps. In Russia, mainly three methods of casting were used: in hard stone forms; in plastic forms (clay, sand, molding earth); on a wax model with preservation or loss of shape.

The main center for the production of copper casting at the end of the 11th - the beginning of the 13th century was Kiev, in the 14th – 15th centuries Novgorod the Great took its place.

Unlike the cities of Southeastern Russia, Novgorod, which did not experience the severity of the Mongol devastation, retained the continuity of its technology. The pre-Mongol crosses-encolpions, cross-vests, icons-pendants and other items found on the territory of Novgorod indicate that the bulk of the monuments of this period exactly reproduce the Kiev samples or rework them in a more simplified form.

By the XIV century, the formation of a local school of copper casting took place in Novgorod. At an early stage in the development of copper foundry, craftsmen focused on the ancient monuments of the Byzantine circle, mainly on miniatures, stamps of chased silver frames and stone reliefs, as well as on samples of Novgorod small plastic. This led, first of all, to the development of the plastic principle in casting, enlargement of parts and images in small images. c. eleven
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In the Novgorod art of the XIV century, qualitatively new models of small copper-cast plastics appeared, in which the local democratic tastes of artisans were reflected.

In the 15th century, the Novgorod school of copper casting was finally formed. At the same time, a stylistic and iconographic evolution is taking place, as a result of which icon samples have taken the place of the main prototypes of copper casting.

The composition of the saints on copper-cast items of this time is due to the demand for saints especially revered in the Novgorod environment. The casting of the 15th century is dominated by images of Saints Nicholas and George, Blasius and John the Merciful, Cosmas and Damian, Boris and Gleb, Stephen and others.

Under the influence of popular taste, compositions are simplified, iconographic versions are reduced, in which only the main characters remain. The forms acquire a mean expressiveness. Simplicity, brevity and imagery became the main features of the Novgorod art of copper casting during this period. The "handwriting" of Novgorodians can be discerned in any form of art of this time, since it is distinguished by its deep conservatism.

Novgorod copper-cast products of the 15th - early 16th centuries have characteristic technical, technological and stylistic features. For example, the main material for their castings is red copper or a reddish brown copper composition with a high content of pure copper. In addition, the format of the products most often resembles a square or rectangle with a width that exceeds the height. There are also objects with a semicircular arched end.

Casting techniques are simplified - basically, one-sided quadrangular icons with a fixed head are made, the casting plates become thinner (1.5–2.0 mm). In addition, the products use the technique of openwork casting with a continuous background, which is characteristic of Novgorod metal plastics of the 14th century.

The images are decorated with an ornament in the form of a stylized rope or plait. This technique came to artistic casting from Novgorod woodcarvers of the 11th-12th centuries. For a cord or chain, a fixed narrow eyelet with a through hole was made. On the front side of the ear, a four-pointed cross in a deep rhombus was usually depicted (an artistic technique typical for small stone sculptures of Novgorod the Great XII-XIII centuries).

Figures also have their own characteristics. They are shortened, stocky, the heads are enlarged, given in a strictly frontal setting. Multi-figured compositions are presented with expressive twists, in sharp angles, the architectural background - in perspective. Another characteristic feature is double-sided images. The reverse side of the icons was not processed, its surface remained uneven, sometimes concave with depressions. The inscriptions were made uniformly, in an abbreviated form. In the XVI-XVII centuries, the primacy in the casting of copper images passes to Moscow and Central Russia. However, the level of casting is falling sharply, things are becoming "extremely unsophisticated", and castings are handicrafts.

Old Russian traditions of foundry were on the verge of extinction, and in 1722 the Decree of Peter I "On the prohibition to use carved and cast icons in churches and private houses" was issued. c. 12
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The decree of 1723 prescribed “... the copper and pewter cast icons, where they are found, besides the crosses worn on the peppers, should be turned into the sacristy for this purpose: these are poured out extremely not skillfully and not figuratively, and so they are very much deprived of worthy honor, which for the sake of such, , to use for church needs, and that from now on, these icons should not be shed from now on and the sale of these icons should be forbidden to the merchant people in the ranks who are acquiring them ... ”. However, despite the ban, copper crosses, folds and icons, so revered among the people, continued to be cast.

V early XVIII century, the heyday of copper foundry again comes, associated with the Old Believer workshops in Pomorie. So, in the foundry of the Vygovsky Old Believer community, completely new types of products were developed, which were widespread until the beginning of the 20th century. First of all, these are the "large festive doors" - a four-winged folding with the image of the Twelve Feasts and scenes of the glorification of the icons of the Mother of God. In addition, on the Vyga, bivalve folds "small folds" - "twos", three-fold folds - "triplets", some types of large and small crosses and a huge number of images with saints especially revered in the Old Believer environment were cast.

The products of the Vygov workshop were distinguished by their lightness and subtlety, the purity of the casting, which conveyed the smallest details, right down to the curls of the hair. But the main difference between the castings was fire gilding and bright glassy enamels adorning numerous crosses, folds and small icons.

New iconographic compositions and forms of folds, images and crosses, the quality of casting and the color palette of enamels - the hallmarks of Vygov's castings - were developed in the products of Moscow workshops of the 18th – 19th centuries.

“Only later, at the end of the 18th century. according to them (vygovskiy. - Approx. ed.) Moscow foundry workers began to work on samples, but their products are much rougher than the Pomor ones, "- this is the conclusion drawn by V. G. Druzhinin, a well-known researcher of the Old Believer Pomor culture.

The history of the Moscow foundry business is traditionally associated with the Preobrazhenskaya community, which since 1771 has become the center of the Old Believers of the popov-less Fedoseevsky accord. Found that foundries were located nearby, in the Lefortovo part.

In connection with the increased demand for copper-cast icons, folds and crosses, already in the first half of the 19th century, there were several foundries of the Fedoseevsky consent, supplying not only the Moscow province, but also other regions of Russia. This fact is confirmed by the "Sentinel records of the Moscow schismatics", which are reports of police agents from November 1844 to July 1848. So, in the entry dated March 8, 1846, the following information about the masters is given: “Last year it was reported about a bourgeois woman, Praskovya Artemyeva, a Fedoseyevskaya sect, who lived in the Lefortovo part, 2 quarters, in the house of the bourgeoisie Praskovya Artemyeva, the bourgeois Ivan Trofimov, who was engaged in casting copper crosses and icons for schismatic sects. Now observations have revealed that the peasant Ignat Timofeev lives in the same Lefortovo part of the stables department, casting copper crosses and icons in large quantities for the non-Popov schism (except for the Philip sect), and how he has been practicing this skill for a long time, he has already founded a permanent trade in cast crosses and icons, even outside Moscow through the persons indicated below. " Further there is a list of persons through whom Ignat Timofeev sent crosses and icons to St. Petersburg, Saratov, Kazan, Tyumen. Crosses and icons cast by him c. thirteen
c. 14¦ were sent in poods at 75 and 80 rubles per pood, in addition, he sold them in Moscow and its districts. In these Moscow workshops, they not only repeated Pomor samples of icons, folds and crosses, but also significantly expanded the range of products.

The successors of the traditions of Pomor casting were the largest Moscow foundries of the Preobrazhenskaya community of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which were also located in the Lefortovo part, in the village of Cherkizovo and on Ninth Company Street. According to archival materials, the names of the owners of the workshops - MI Prokofieva, MI Sokolova, EP Petrova and PN Pankratova - and the history of the existence of these "copper establishments" have been established.

The copper-cast works of the Moscow workshops, despite the similarity with the Pomor samples, have significant differences: a significant increase in weight, sophisticated decorativeness and a multicolored range of glassy enamels. Monograms of foundry masters (MAP, NIB, LE ω) and other letters appear on individual copper-cast icons, folds and crosses.

The largest group of icons, folds and crosses has a monogram by the Moscow master Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev (M.R.S.Kh., R.Kh., R.S.). Currently, in museum and private collections, more than 30 iconographic subjects belonging to this master have been identified.

The works of Moscow foundry workers in the second half of the 19th century, which became widespread, like the earlier Pomor icons, folds and crosses, became models for provincial workshops. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, close ties with the Preobrazhenskaya community were maintained by P. Ya. Serov's Krasnosel workshop, which carried out orders from foundries in Moscow and worked according to Moscow models. For about a year and a half, the Moscow master Vikul Isaevich Odintsov taught the workers of this workshop the secrets of molding and minting products.

Thus, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, Moscow foundry workers continued the traditions of the famous Pomor "coppersmith", passing on their experience to Old Believer workshops in the villages of Krasnoye, Kostroma province and Staraya Tushka in the Vyatka Territory.

The popularity of copper casting in Russia is evidenced by the massive sale of this type of product at the Nizhny Novgorod and other fairs. The demand caused the emergence of a special branch of the craft - the forgery of copper images "in the old form". Such workshops also existed in the village of Nikologorsky pogost, which is 25 versts from Mstera (Vladimir province): “In the Nikologorsky churchyard, copper images and crosses are forged in the following way: they are cast into a form taken from an old image, or a cross, made of green copper, then put on for two hours in water, in which simple salt is dissolved, then they take it out and hold it over the vapors of ammonia, which makes the green copper turn into the color of red copper and the image also takes on a smoky old look. "

It is no coincidence that the largest collectors of copper casting B. I. and V. N. Khanenko, in the preface to the catalog of their collection, pointed out: “The question of the place where the object was found, apart from historical interest, is acquiring special interest in our time due to the enormous number of forgeries of ancient crosses and figurines , often perfectly executed, circulating in significant quantities in our markets and mainly in Moscow. "

At the present time, there are still many monuments of copper art casting, stored in the storerooms of museums, are waiting for their researchers. c. 14
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The Andrei Rublev Central Museum of Old Russian Culture and Art, founded in 1947 and located within the walls of the Andronikov Monastery, has a rare collection of decorative and applied art from the 11th - early 20th centuries. A significant part of this collection is made up of copper art castings, including various types. The museum also contains works of tempera painting with objects of copper casting embedded in them. The collection of metal wares includes molds for casting pectoral crosses, inkpots, buttons, bells and bells, icon frames and their fragments, various liturgical objects (monstrosities, tabernacles, lamps, etc.). The collection has evolved gradually over 50 years based on different sources of income.

A special part of the fund are exhibits donated by the museum. This group consists of one hundred monuments and includes ancient crosses-encolpions, serpentines, icons of Novgorod casting of the XIV-XVI centuries, images, crosses and folds of the XVIII-XIX centuries.

An indisputable rarity can be considered the figured squares from the frame of the Gospel depicting the four Evangelists, made by Novgorod craftsmen at the beginning of the 16th century using the casting technique with fire gilding (Fig. 75). These items were donated to the museum in 1966 by the famous Moscow jeweler and artist-restorer F. Ya. Mishukov.

Two serpentines of the 13th century with the image of St. Theodore Stratilates were donated from private individuals (Fig. 53). One of them was discovered by V.N.Sergeev in Tver, the other was found by E. Mezhov during the Great Patriotic War near Konigsberg.

The wing of the 13th century encolpion cross "Crucifixion" (Fig. 12), the two-row icon of the 16th century "Archangels and the Chosen Saints" (Fig. 70), the Encolpion crosses of the 14th – 16th centuries (Fig. 15,).

The collection of the Moscow artist V. Ya. Sitnikov (1916-1987), which he left as a gift to the A. Rublev Museum before leaving in 1975, replenished the collection of copper casting with exhibits of the 18th-19th centuries (27 items; Fig. 131, 162) ... An exception is the 16th-century Novgorod serpentine folding centerpiece with the image of Our Lady of Hodegetria on the obverse (Fig. 55).

In the 1990s, more than two hundred works of copper casting of the 17th – 19th centuries from his collection were purchased from V. Ya. Sitnikov's relatives, including those with rare iconography (Fig. 121), with the initials of the foundry masters of Moscow (Fig. 179

Similar cross-vests of the XIV-XV centuries with images of Nikita beating the devil and the Savior Not Made by Hands came to the museum fund in 1964 from the collection of D. A. Shalobanov. This collection (21 items) includes a cross "Crucifixion with the forthcoming" Moscow work of the 17th century (Fig. 29), the cross "Angel of the Great Council" on iconography of the 16th century (Fig. 32) and other items.

The most significant acquisition of the Museum, both in terms of the number (579 storage units) and the composition and typology of the monuments of copper art casting of the 11th – 20th centuries, is the collection of the Moscow artist V.P. Penzin, purchased in the late 1980s. This largest private collection was formed in the 1960s-1970s as a result of V.P. Penzin's numerous trips across the Russian North, as well as his close ties with collectors and artists. The collection contains the rarest works of Russian foundry workers in Kiev, Novgorod, Moscow and other centers. Among them, a group of monuments of Novgorod casting stands out (Fig. 56

After an expedition to the Vladimir region, one of the first icons with an incised copper-cast eight-pointed cross of the 19th century came to the museum.

A small part of the works of copper casting of the 18th – 19th centuries (35 items) came to the museum in the 1960s from the churches of the Moscow, Tver and Nizhny Novgorod regions. In this group of crosses, icons and folds it is possible to distinguish the three-winged folding "Deisus", made according to the ancient model of bone (Fig. 205), as well as the fold "Our Lady of Odigitria" with images of the Russian saints, which are rare for copper-cast plastics - Guria and Barsanuphius of Kazan (Fig. . 208).

One of the sources of replenishment of the museum collection are things (about 200 items) obtained from the investigative bodies of Moscow, as well as from the regional customs: the cut-through icon "Prophet Daniel * * *

This publication is the first attempt to generalize and describe the museum collection. The album includes 249 pieces of copper artistic casting of the 11th - early 20th centuries. The presented monuments show the variety of types, shapes and decorations of copper casting objects.

All items are grouped into three sections with a single numbering: section one - "Crosses", section two - "Icons", section three - "Folding".

The captions below give the following information about the items: type, name, production center, dating, material, technique and dimensions in centimeters (the parameters of items with ears and tops are indicated, for folding ones - in open form), a short description, a link to the publication , in which the image of this item was first published. At the end, brief information about the iconographic features of copper casting products is given, in some cases with reference to a literary source. c. 17
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The day after tomorrow, January 12, 2014 in the Sunday lecture hall "Old Believer icon painting" there will be a lesson dedicated to copper casting Guslits. This lesson will conclude a small block on this center. It was Guslitsy that was an outstanding center of copper foundry among the Old Believers-priests.

In the first half of the 19th century, the classification of copper casting was of interest not only to historians and archaeologists, but also to officials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. So, in one of the documents of the 1840s it says: “... excellent copper crosses and icons, known under the names: Zagarsk, Pomor, Pogost and others, of which the first two varieties are cast in Moscow, and the last in the Vladimir province.

The use of these icons and crosses, as you know, is ubiquitous throughout Russia, it has taken root for a long time among the common people, not excluding persons of the Orthodox confession, so that these icons are found in almost all huts and other dwellings and are hung in villages above the gates of houses , on ships and so on. Moreover, with these icons, the peasants bless their children who leave on long journeys or enter recruits, and these images remain with them for a lifetime ... ”.

As noted by the well-known expert in the field of Old Believer copper-cast plastics E.Ya. Zotov, this official document is the first, known to researchers, an attempt to classify copper casting. In addition, the document contains important information about the existence of casting works. But the document contains only 3 grades of copper casting: Pomorskoe, Zagarskoe and Pogostskoe ... And guslitskoe? ....

The mention of guslitsky casting is first encountered in the works of the Vladimir local historian I.A. Golysheva: “Copper icons are divided into 4 categories: Zagarsk (guslitsky), Nikologorsk (Nikologorsky churchyard), old or Pomor (for the schismatics of the Pomor sect), and new”.

Pomorskoe, Pogostskoe, Zagarskoe, Guslitskoe ... All these types of casting differed not only in the place of production, but also in the environment in which they lived (among the Bezpopovites, the Pomor casting was widespread, among the priests - guslitsky), and artistic features, and even a way of selling. Icons and crosses of the "best Pomor work" were sold individually, while other categories of copper-cast products were sold by weight at a price per pood.

In guslitsky villages, a very large number of images, folds, crosses were cast. Some of them were sent for sale to Moscow, others to other Old Believer centers. The works of guslitsky craftsmen differ from the Pomor casting in typology, plasticity and technological features.

As E.Ya. Zotov, the main place in the "repertoire" of guslitsky casting was occupied by crosses, which differed not only in a certain iconographic program, but also in compositional diversity. For example, in Guslitsy, a special type of 8-pointed cross was cast, which became widespread throughout Russia: Crucifixion with instruments of passion, with large relief letters of the Pilatus titles "I.N.TS.I.", with the image of the Lord of hosts in the clouds and descending from Him the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove.

Above, guslitsky crosses and icons were decorated with carved cherubs and seraphs. The most expressive products of this center are the large 8-pointed crosses depicting the Crucifixion with the forthcoming ones, the stamps of the holidays and the peculiar pommel of their figurines of seraphim and cherubim.

The lesson will be conducted by Elena Yakovlevna Zotova, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Senior Researcher of the Museum, Curator of the Copper Casting Fund. At the end of the lesson, a small practical part is expected, during which everyone will be able to "live" to get acquainted with the works of guslyak casters.

The lecture will take place in the concert and lecture hall of the Museum (4th floor of the exposition).
The beginning of the lesson is at 12.30.

Ticket price for this lesson:
adults - 150 rubles.
students, schoolchildren, pensioners - 100 rubles.
students of the Moscow Old Believer Theological School - free of charge (at the box office, you must show a certificate).
We remind you that tickets for the lecture hall can be bought ONLY AT THE MUSEUM CASH OFFER.

We continue a series of publications devoted to the history and culture of the Old Believers, which constituted a rich and meaningful layer of Russian spiritual life. The Old Believers have preserved many artistic values ​​and aesthetic principles, without which the picture of the Russian church and everyday culture will be incomplete.

No matter what historians write about the gradual, stretching for almost three centuries, the introduction of the Eastern Slavs to Christian Church, it is obvious that the baptism of Rus under the Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir spread to the majority of the population of Kievan Rus. The new faith required not only the internal reorganization of a person, but also assumed an external expression, which in the era of the initial spread of Christianity also became a sign of personal confessional feat.

Russia adopted Christianity from Byzantium along with a developed, fully developed church art, in which any decorative detail was subordinated to a strictly meaningful symbolic system. The pectoral cross became the first symbol of faith for yesterday's pagan in Russia. Archaeological excavations show that metal and stone pectoral crosses, the so-called "korsunchiki", were brought to Russia en masse. However, just a few decades after 988, the own production of crosses, and along with them, of wearable icons, acquired such a scale in Russia that the import of similar products from Byzantium became meaningless. The imagination of Russian foundry masters was boundless; preserving the traditional Greek form of an equal-pointed cross, the pre-Mongol Russian vests had dozens of different forms.

The tradition of making copper-cast jewelry was established in Russia in the pre-Christian era. It is interesting to see how ancient decorations with solar symbols timidly and gradually include images of the cross. The notorious Russian dual faith is expressed by round pendants, which were originally symbols of the Slavic Yarila, with cross-shaped slots, and then became simply four-pointed or twelve-pointed crosses enclosed in a circle. The same metamorphosis was undergone by the ancient Slavic lunars, in which the Christian cross was gradually established between the ends of the pagan month.

Serpentines - ancient slavic amulets, cast on the back of the folding arms until the 16th century.

Casting, which was established in Russian church art in the pre-Mongol era, is experiencing a rebirth at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, the manufacture of cast icons, folding, various crosses became the property of almost exclusively the Old Believers. An exception was the production of pectoral crosses, which continued to be cast in workshops that offered their products to the Orthodox Church.

The spread of cast icons in the Old Believers, and to the greatest extent in pop-free consents, with the Orthodox Church almost completely indifferent to them, is explained, first of all, by the historical conditions of the Old Believers' existence.

For two and a half centuries, the Old Believers were severely persecuted by the state authorities, unable to openly build their churches and monasteries. At the same time, the priests and bespopovtsy were not in the same position. The Old Believers, accepting the priesthood, dreamed of finding a bishop and restoring the hierarchy, tried at every opportunity to legalize themselves, to regulate their relations with the authorities, since they needed a condescending attitude towards the priests who passed to them from the ruling Church.

Old Believers-non-popovtsy were convinced that the spiritual enthronement of the Antichrist had already taken place, therefore the true Church can only be persecuted. This conviction found its extreme expression in the ideology of consent of pilgrims, or runners. It was difficult to constantly transport large church icons to a new place. Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is in bespopov agreements, mainly among the Pomors, that copper casting flourishes.

The beginning and flourishing of the Old Believers' production of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds is traditionally associated with the Vygov monasteries and hermitages. Already in the 70s of the 17th century, settlements appeared on the Vyg River, founded by escaped monks of the Solovetsky Monastery, which, not agreeing to serve according to the books sent by Patriarch Nikon, was besieged by the tsarist troops for eight years from 1668 to 1676. After the defeat of the Solovetsky rebels, numerous inhabitants of the monastery went to the banks of the Vyg River, where the founders of the monastery, the Monks Savvaty and German, began their exploit. In October 1694, two settlements founded by Daniil Vikulin and Andrei Denisov were merged into the Vygov community - a monastery, which was the ideological center of the Old Believers of the bespopov style for the next one and a half centuries.

The Vygovsky monastery, divided by a wall into two halves, was originally inhabited by men and women. In 1706, 20 versts from the male Epiphany monastery, a female Holy Cross was built, which stood on the Lekse River. The first abbess was Andrei Denisov's own sister Solomonia. Near these two monasteries, numerous sketes were organized, in which families were allowed to live.

It is in these monasteries that the revival of the ancient Russian tradition of making cast icons is taking place. At the same time, Vygoretsk craftsmen achieve unprecedented technical and aesthetic perfection of their products. Vygovsky cast icons are distinguished by their extraordinary grace, subtlety of casting, conveying the smallest details, right down to curls of hair and eye pupils. Intricate ornaments were filled with multicolored glassy enamels, a significant part of the items were gilded by fire. The favorite product of the Vygov coppersmiths were small bivalve and tricuspid folds, in which not only the front, but also the whimsically ornamented reverse side was covered with multicolored enamels. On Vyga, the "Crucifixions with the Forthcoming", which subsequently spread throughout Russia, were invented, resembling the shape of the letter F. Here, the first "large doors" were cast - four-fold folding with the image of the twelve holidays.

Later, crosses and icons began to be cast on the Vygov samples in Guslitsy (a village in the Vladimir province) and in Zagarye (several villages in the Bogorodsky district of the Moscow province, engaged in the production of copper-cast crosses and icons).

The cheapest and simplest were the products of tanning workshops. The casts were almost never covered with enamels, had a careless finish, were distinguished by indistinct, blurry images.

Guslitsk products were of higher quality. A favorite element of Guslitsky artists were the "sixthril" - small images of cherubs, which were cast on the middle parts of small three-winged folds and in abundance on the tops of a wide variety of crosses. Vygovskaya form "Crucifixion with the forthcoming" guslitskie masters expanded due to numerous hallmarks depicting holidays and "six wings", the number of which in the tops of large crosses reached nineteen.

At the end of the 18th century, Moscow workshops for the production of cast icons appeared. They are grouped around the Preobrazhensky cemetery, which since 1771 has become the center of the Fedoseevsky accord. They flourished in the second half of the 19th century. Moscow products date back to the Vygov designs, differing from them in their ponderousness and excessive decorativeness. Monograms of foundry masters appear on Moscow crosses, icons and folds: MAP, NIB, MRSKh, PX, RS. The last three, which are found more often than others, belong to the master Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev, who had every reason to be proud of the quality of his products.

In the second half of the 19th century, the number of Old Believer coppersmiths increased significantly. They appear in the village of Krasnoye, Kostroma province, in the village of Staraya Tushka, Vyatka province, in the Urals and in other regions of Russia.

The set of plots of Old Believer copper casting differs significantly from the corresponding spectrum of Old Russian cast products. In the Old Believer coppersmiths, the lunar era characteristic of the transition from paganism to Christianity, with crosses attached to them, was not cast. Round cross-shaped pendants were not produced, in which the sign of the cross was inscribed in the ancient solar symbol. Serpentines, common in the pre-Mongol and early post-Mongol times, were not made.

At the same time, the subject matter is enriched by a multitude of tricks known from the usual icon painting. Most of the icon-painting subjects are reproduced in one way or another in copper casting. At the same time, the most common in Old Believer copper casting are the image of the Mother of God and the images of saints. The Lord Jesus Christ, although he is the Head of the Church, is represented in iconography by a significantly smaller number of iconographic types (with many versions of each type) than the Mother of God and the saints. This is probably due to the fact that it is much easier for a sinful person to turn with a prayer request to a person - the Mother of God or a saint, than to God, even if it is the Incarnate God Jesus Christ.

The most common iconographic type in casting is Deesis... The Russian word "Deisus" is a distorted Greek word "Deisis", which means "prayer." Deesis is an image of Jesus Christ sitting on a throne, to the right of which is the Mother of God, to the left is John the Baptist. In the Old Believer copper casting, the Deesis is most often the middle of the three-winged folds, called "nines". Each side panel of such a folding bears an image of selected saints. Most often these are Metropolitan Philip, Apostle John the Theologian, Saint Nicholas - on the left wing; The Guardian Angel, Saints Zosima and Savvaty - on the right. This selection of saints is not accidental. Zosima, Savvaty and Philip are saints, whose deeds were performed in the Solovetsky Monastery, very revered by the Old Believers, where the first such folds were cast. The presence of the Guardian Angel and Nicholas the Wonderworker - the patron saint of travelers - shows that the "nines" were "travel" icons. They were taken on the road, worn as wearable icons. The Calvary cross on the reverse side of one of the doors made it possible to do without a separately worn pectoral cross.

Foldings have survived, the midships of which were an ark divided into four parts, of a sufficiently deep depth, tightly closed by a plate with the image of Deisus. Such a folding could be used to store holy relics or to transfer the Holy Gifts, precious for the Old Believers-bespopovtsy, consecrated by the pre-Nikon priests.

The second, less common version of the "nine" has doors with a different set of saints: on the left one depicts the Great Martyr George the Victorious, the holy martyrs Antipas and Blasius; on the right - the Monk John the Old Caveman and the Martyrs Cosmas and Damian.

There is also a Deesis in the form of tricuspid folds of another type, the middle of which is a half-length image of the Lord Jesus Christ, the leaves are half-length images of the Virgin (a version similar to Bogolyubskaya with a scroll in his hands) and John the Baptist. The image of John the Baptist is variable. Most often, he is depicted in the form of a winged Angel of the desert with a bowl in his hands, which contains the image of the infant Christ; it is a symbolic image of the Baptism of the Lord. The location of the Divine Infant can be different, both from left to right, and vice versa. In some of the folds, the right wing represented John without wings, with his hands raised upward in an exquisite gesture.

Sometimes the centerpiece of such a Deesis was cast separately. In this case, he turned into an image Lord Almighty... There are also known special images of the Lord Almighty, both half-length and in the form of the Savior on the throne. As a rule, they are older.

Very widespread in the Old Believers are folds with a centerpiece Deisus, below which are placed half-length images of four saints: the Monk Zosima, Saint Nicholas, Saint Leonty, and Saint Savvaty. Sometimes other saints were also depicted. The top of such a folding could be the Image of Christ Not Made by Hands or decorated with a simple geometric ornament. .

One of the most ancient images of Christ the Savior, which existed in copper casting, is the so-called Spas Smolensky... This iconographic type is a full-length depiction of Christ, decorated with a massive tsata, at whose feet the Monks Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam of Khutynsky fall. On the sides of the Savior, in the upper part of the icon, there are images of angels holding the instruments of passion in their hands. The Savior of Smolensk is found in the form of individual icons, often decorated with multi-colored enamels, and as a centerpiece of various folds.

Another iconographic type of Christ the Savior presented in copper casting, depicted surrounded by saints, is Deesis, in which figures of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the apostles Peter and Paul are added to the images of the Mother of God and John the Baptist, as well as leaning Zosima and Savvaty. V "Weeks" in a larger format, figures of the Apostle John the Theologian and St. John Chrysostom, as well as the kneeling Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Sergius of Radonezh are added.

Miraculous Image The Savior is most often found in casting in the form of pommels of individual icons and folding ones. This tradition originates in the most ancient examples of casting, and the iconography of the image changes very noticeably from the exquisite 17th century versions, which also depicted a plate with its bizarre folds, to simple, almost schematic images of the 18th and 19th centuries. The Image Not Made by Hands is also found in the tops of cast crosses of various sizes. It is this type of cross, which, in addition to the Image of Not Made by Hands in the pommel, is distinguished by the absence of the image of the Holy Spirit "in the form of a dove" and "Pilate's title" - the letters INTSI - was considered by the Old Believers of the Pomeranian consent to be the only correct cross.

The Miraculous Image is also found in the form of separate small specimens. He is known mainly in two versions; moreover, the one in which the Image Not Made by Hands is surrounded by an inscription is more ancient and rare.

Rare ancient cast icons are the images of the Descent from the Cross, which depict the naked torso of the dead Christ with his arms folded crosswise on his chest, resting on the edge of the coffin. On the sides of the cross are visible figures of the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Theologian, made almost in full growth; in the upper part of the icon there are shoulder images of Angels in round medallions. It is possible that small icons of the Descent from the Cross were cast even before the split. However, knowing the tendency of the adherents of the old faith to rare plots, it is more likely to assume that they were still cast in the Old Believer coppersmiths. This iconographic type by the 19th century will turn into an image "Don't cry for me Mati", which is appropriate to refer to the icons of the Theotokos.

Russian icon painters, starting from the 16th century, dared to depict the Second Hypostasis of the Trinity even before its Incarnation. Although the legitimacy of such allegorical images as Sophia the Wisdom of God in her Novgorod version was disputed by several church councils of the 16th and 17th centuries, they continued to be reproduced until the end of the 19th century. They also found their reflection in copper casting.

The classical iconography of Sophia the Wisdom of God, like the symbolism of this image, is extremely complex. However, the central part of the image, which is a kind of "Deesis", in which instead of Christ sits on the throne a winged effeminate figure with angelic wings and a star-shaped halo, is represented in ancient casting by rare casts made long before the split.

The Old Believer copper casting reproduces an abbreviated version of Sofia, known in iconography since the 17th century under the name "Spas the Good Silence"... Silence is a symbol of unspokenness, non-manifestation, non-embodiment. The silence of Sophia is a symbol of the non-incarnation of the Eternal Logos, and Sophia Itself is the Logos before the Incarnation. Thus, the icon "Savior the Good Silence" is the image of Jesus Christ before His Incarnation.

The image "Good Silence" is a half-length image of Sophia in its Novgorod version. This is a winged Angel with the face of a young maiden with a star-shaped nimbus inscribed in a circle, dressed in a royal dalmatic, with his arms crossed on his chest. In casting, this image appears only towards the end of the 18th century. It exists either in the form of a small casting, where only the Angel is depicted, or in the form of a larger icon, where the Angel turns into a centerpiece, inscribed in a frame with 18 round medallions, in which there are waist figures of various saints. These icons, as a rule, were colored with enamels of various shades.

The theological content of this very elegant icon is inferior to the more modest, but no less mysterious image of the Angel of the Great Council. This is what the famous collectors of the 19th century, the Khanenko brothers, call this image of the Angel on the cross. Another well-known researcher of ancient Russian art, Peretz, calls this casting the "Only Begotten Son", directly linking it with the "renounced" icons of the 16th century. The Angel himself with a mirror and a measure in his hands resembles the well-known image of the Archangel Michael. However, the presence of the cross behind the Angel's back helps to see a deeper theological content in this image.

The Apostle Peter in the First Council Epistle, which is part of the New Testament, calls Jesus Christ the Lamb, destined even before the creation of the world for the slaughter (1 Peter 1, 19-20). The same symbolic image is found in the Apocalypse (Rev. 13, 8). At the same time, the prophet Isaiah calls the not yet incarnate Christ the Angel of the Great Council (Isaiah 9: 6). Thus, this small archaic image of an Angel expresses the deepest theological idea of ​​the absolute value of the personal freedom of man, the infinite love of God, ready to sacrifice Himself for the salvation of the only being who is the bearer of His Image.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the interest in the theologically ambiguous subjects in the Old Believers is clearly increasing. This is evidenced by the "Only Begotten Son" icon cast at that time, which seems to be a fairly accurate, albeit "reduced" copy of the 16th century icon. The "Only Begotten Son" castings are known in single copies; in the collections of copper casting are very rare. Most likely, it was a one-time order from one of the 19th century Old Believer collectors, or the icon was cast specifically for a few connoisseurs and lovers of ancient casting. (Picture 12. Only Begotten Son. XIX century).

The Lord Jesus Christ is also depicted on numerous copper-cast crucifixes, which were loved not only by the zealots of the old faith, but also by all pious Orthodox people in Russia. With all the variety of these Old Believer crosses, the image of the crucified Savior on them remains unchanged. As for the holiday stories, here the variations in the very image of Christ are quite interesting. This topic requires a special discussion and will be presented in one of the next articles devoted to Old Believer art.

In an open-collar jacket,

With a naked head

Slowly passes by the city

Uncle Vlas is a gray-haired old man.

On the chest there is a copper icon:

He asks for God's temple, -

All in chains, poor shoes,

There is a deep scar on the cheek ...

ON THE. Nekrasov

Copper-cast plastic - crosses, icons and folds - is a major national phenomenon of Russian artistic culture. That very special attitude to copper casting, which existed in Russia for a millennium, has been completely forgotten in the people's memory over the past century.

Agree, in our modern world super-speeds, there is absolutely no room for faith in God. Today, for most people, it has been replaced by expensive cars and money. Money has become a cult. But just a hundred years ago, every Russian Orthodox Christian began and ended his day with a rather simple action - prayer, raising it to the Lord God, sharing with him all his sorrows and joys, which is now for modern man seems, to put it mildly, unusual.

But not all is lost, spirituality is beginning to revive in modern society, because without it, the revival of Russia as a great state is impossible. In other words, our country, like never before, needs to revive and strengthen unshakable moral values, to turn to the sources in order to strengthen the spiritual foundation of society, to act creatively.

Where does the path begin an orthodox person? That's right - from baptism. From holy baptism to the hour of death, every Christian should wear on his chest the sign of his faith - a pectoral cross. He is a symbol of our salvation, a weapon of spiritual struggle, a symbol of the confession of faith. This sign is worn not over clothing, but on the body, which is why the cross is called worn on the body. That is why crosses represent the most massive and at the same time the most ancient type of copper-cast products. In the modern world, gold and silver pectoral crosses are most in demand, and in ancient times they were mostly copper, and making them from precious metals was a very expensive pleasure. Copper crosses are still in demand, most of all among the Old Believers. What pectoral cross is considered canon, why is it unacceptable to wear a pectoral cross with the image of the crucified Savior and other images? You can read it here.

Also, iconic crosses, which were used by our ancestors, are still very popular. They differ from chest crosses in larger sizes and do not have an eyelet for a neck cord. The kioto cross is placed on special shelves (kiots) among the holy icons in the red corner or attached to the jamb of the doors of the dwelling. Due to their small size, they can be taken with you on wanderings, hikes, trips, for the construction of temporary altars.

Works made of copper, especially crosses and images with relief images, had a protective function and were revered as shrines-amulets from evil spirits, disasters and diseases. Copper, according to popular belief, had "magical" properties. Separately, I would like to dwell on the topic of dual faith, because after the Baptism of Rus in 988, paganism persisted until the 12th century, and only then it began to gradually fade away. A unique symbol of this time is an icon in the form of a medallion - a serpentine, on which, on the one hand, a Christian saint was depicted, and on the other, a pagan serpentine creature (that is why it is called that). In the folk environment, the value of the serpentine as a talisman has survived until the 20th century.

The modern replica of the serpentine with the image of the Mother of God and the Child is very interesting. (Ancient Russia, XIII-XIV centuries), it can be purchased in the online store. The image of the Mother of God on the front side of the serpentine symbolizes victory over the devil and over all evil, according to popular beliefs, only the devil could not appear in her image, and she has always been a reliable protector from the devil's power. Thus, the protective significance of these items was especially emphasized.

"The image is pure, worthy of veneration" ... These words can define the copper-cast icons and crosses created by the Old Believers in the vast expanses of Russia - in the sketes of Pomorie and the workshops of Moscow, in the villages of the Moscow region and the Volga region, in secret forges in the Urals and in Siberia - during less than three hundred years from the end of the 17th century. before the beginning of the XX century.

The new period in the history of copper casting is inextricably linked with the Old Believers movement in Russia, when in the second half of the 17th century, after the split in the Russian Orthodox Church, opponents of the reform of Patriarch Nikon were forced to flee from the persecution of the authorities, flee from the center to remote outskirts, and hide in the forests. In such difficult conditions, it was the Old Believers who preserved and continued the ancient Russian traditions of copper casting. It was difficult to constantly transport large church icons to a new place. Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is in bespopov agreements, mainly among the Pomors, that copper casting flourishes. As priceless relics, ancient copper-cast images were carefully inserted into icon-case frames and put into picturesque wooden or carved folds.

But the Old Believers not only preserved the ancient Russian heritage, but also created their own special religious and spiritual culture. Copper-cast images, "as having been purified by fire" and not by the hands of "created" ones, received wide reverence among the people. The variety of forms, iconography, composition and decoration, Old Believer copper-cast crosses, icons and foldables is striking. Hot multi-colored enamels and fire gilding enhance their decorative effect.

The "Deisus" tricuspid folds were in great demand. They were cast in different sizes - from small, travel, for wearing on the chest to a large solemn image for a prayer house.

It was during this period that folds of new iconographic types were born. Among them - the three-winged folding "Deesis with selected saints", or, as it is often called, "Nine". Indeed, there are nine figures on the fold. In the centerpiece is the Savior on the throne with the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Baptist, on the left wing there are depicted the Apostle John the Theologian, Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker and Metropolitan Philip, on the right - the Guardian Angel and the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky.

Also, I would like to separately note the four-winged folding with the image of the Twelve Great Holidays - the so-called "large festive wings". This fold, which is a whole marching iconostasis, was extremely popular and not only among the Old Believers. Everything in this copper-cast monument - both the shape and the thoroughness of the elaboration of miniature hallmarks, and the ornament of the outer side of the second wing - testifies to the talent and high skill of the foundry workers of the famous Vygovskaya "copper shop".

The mainstays of the Russian land were and remain the saints, deeply revered by the people. This is confirmed by the numerous copper-cast icons and folds, which were addressed with their sorrows and joys, with the words of prayer by Russian people throughout the vast territory of Russia ... The veneration of saints is associated with the concept of holiness - central in the history of salvation - and its bearers. The holy martyrs stand at the source. Jesus Christ is the greatest martyr. Gregory the Theologian said about the feat of martyrdom: “While glorifying the memory of the holy martyrs, we do not just participate in this celebration, we participate in the mystery of the martyrdom that these saints manifested ...” Self-sacrifice at all times aroused and evokes sympathy among people, and martyrdom raised the individual to the height of holiness ...

The most revered and beloved saints, both in Russia and throughout the world, have been and remain: St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (to him to pray for intercession, marriage, health and other help); Saint Nikita, who beats the devil (helps in teaching, heals, casts out demons, helps to repent of sins and to be freed from the deceptions of the devil, including drunkenness); Saint George the Victorious (he is the patron saint of the military, farmers, livestock breeders); Saint Paraskeva Friday (they pray to her for patronage of the family hearth; in marital sterility; for worthy suitors); Hieromartyr Antipas of Pergamon (they pray to him for healing, in particular from dental diseases); Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky (they are patrons of beekeepers, they also pray for help at sea from storms and drowning, for help floating on the water); Saint Sergius of Radonezh (they pray to him for the spiritual health of children and their success in education); Saint Matrona of Moscow (they pray to her for pregnancy, health, marriage, conception, love, recovery, help); Saint Seraphim of Sarov (they pray to him for physical and spiritual healing).

Separately, I would like to highlight the image of the Mother of God - throughout Russia, in every house, as “an ambulance and a warm intercessor,” people have and are turning to Her. The most revered icons of Our Lady of Kazan, Fedorovskaya, Tikhvin and Burning Bush. The Mother of God of Kazan is praying for the enlightenment of the blind. The Mother of God Fedorovskaya is addressed with a prayer "for deliverance from the difficult birth of wives." "For the preservation of the health of babies" ask the Mother of God of Tikhvin.

The Russian people consider the Mother of God the Burning Bush as a guardian against fire and lightning. In folk life, they sometimes walked around a burning building with this image of the Mother of God to quickly extinguish the fire ... There were many copper-cast icons and folds with revered images of the Mother of God, but the people especially loved the images and icons of the Mother of God Joy of all who sorrow.

Small copper images and folds, easy to carry, durable and cheap, quite often served as a talisman - they accompanied the owner during long trips and travels. Often such copper-cast objects were found far beyond the borders of the Russian land.

During the years of Soviet power, the production of copper-cast plastics ceased, only handicraft and low-circulation products were created. But 70 years later, thanks to the successors of the traditions of Russian copper casting, this art began to revive. Contemporary masters tried to recreate all the diversity and the former splendor of copper plastic, inventing new versions, as well as duplicating the old ones that were created earlier and existed among our ancestors. The poetry of art and metal got a second life!

Online store site offers you a unique opportunity to join one of the most ancient arts - Russian artistic copper casting. Feel the spirit of history through copper-cast plastic, which was created several hundred years ago by the hands of talented craftsmen, and who knows, maybe in this way you can come to faith in God, as it was before, with a Russian Orthodox person. One most interesting feature is that everyone who took a copper icon or a cross in their hands experienced some kind of extraordinary inner feeling, perhaps this is due to their enchanting magnificence, severity and at the same time softness, which attract and fascinate. Or maybe this feeling is the very grace of God?

Unfortunately, in our modern society, there are a lot of people who do not believe in God. But you should not condemn them, for "Do not judge, lest you be judged" (Matt. 7: 1-6). Present such a person with a small icon or a copper icon, for example, with Nicholas the Wonderworker. And advise him to turn to God in prayer when there is a difficult moment in his life, because “there are no atheists in trenches under fire” - every person sooner or later comes to faith, and let this first step be taken with the help of a small copper icon donated You.

Friends and relatives will be very pleased to receive a copper icon as a gift for any significant event. Such original gift will leave a long prayer memory about you, because every time turning with a prayer to the copper icon you donated, loved ones will remember you with prayer and heartfelt warmth. Copper or bronze icon over time, it can become a real family heirloom - a particle of the eternal, immaterial. It can decorate your home iconostasis, or become a wonderful "travel" icon that will accompany you on your travels!

Today our life has become faster and faster. We spend most of our time driving a car. To prevent trouble or misfortune from happening on the road, more and more people resort to the help of miraculous helpers, that is, icons, amulets, holy guidebooks. The icons in the car are a kind of our protection and protection on the road while driving, they provide miraculous help, make it possible to turn to God on the way, pray and ask for protection. The copper icon, due to its inexpensive cost, durability and resistance to fading under the influence of sunlight, will be the perfect gift for the motorist.

As an exclusive gift, we are ready to offer you a modern mortise stave - the iconostasis. Modern cut-in icons are made to order, from different breeds linden-tree, oak, pine, beech, taking into account all your wishes. All carpentry work is done by hand, and we can say with complete confidence that the new modern cut-in icon will exist in a single copy! This makes it truly unique, and any believer would be pleased to receive such a gift.

We sincerely believe that thanks to our small contribution, spirituality will begin to revive, because without it, the revival of the great Russian state is impossible ...

With full or partial copying of materials from our site, an active link to the source is required!

"The image is pure, worthy of veneration" ... These words can define the copper-cast icons and crosses created by the Old Believers in the vast expanses of Russia - in the sketes of Pomorie and the workshops of Moscow, in the villages of the Moscow region and the Volga region, in secret forges in the Urals and in Siberia - during less than three hundred years from the end of the 17th century. before the beginning of the XX century.

The new period in the history of copper casting is inextricably linked with the Old Believer movement in Russia, when in the second half of the 17th century, after the split of the Russian Orthodox Church, opponents of the reform of Patriarch Nikon were forced to flee from the persecution of the authorities, flee from the center to remote outskirts, and hide in the forests. In such difficult conditions, it was the Old Believers who preserved and continued the Old Russian traditions of bookishness, icon painting and applied art. As priceless relics, ancient copper-cast images were carefully inserted into icon-case frames and put into picturesque wooden or carved folds.

But the Old Believers not only preserved the ancient Russian heritage, but also created their own special religious and spiritual culture. Copper-cast images, “as having been purified by fire,” and “not created by the Nikonians,” received widespread veneration among the people. The variety of forms, iconography, composition and decoration of the Old Believers' copper-cast crosses, icons and foldables is striking. Among this huge array of preserved copper-cast plastics, one can identify works created in specific workshops. It is no coincidence that already in the first half of the 19th century. there were such varieties, or categories of "low tide copper crosses and icons" - Pomor, Guslitsk (or Zagarsk) and Pogost, which became widespread among Old Believers of different communities and trends.

When looking at this bright and original layer of Russian applied art, one should constantly remember that the development of copper foundry took place in very special conditions, contrary to the law and the will of the authorities. Russia's need for non-ferrous metal, so necessary for military needs, caused the appearance of decrees of Peter I in 1722 and 1723, prohibiting not only the production, sale, but also the existence of copper icons and crosses.

According to the action of these decrees, only crosses were allowed - vests and breast panagias. The Old Believers considered only the eight-pointed cross to be "correct", which was depicted in the center of the male and female pectoral cross. “May God rise and disdain Him ...” - these words of the prayer have become an obligatory part of the design of the crosses - vests.

Despite the existence of this law, which was in effect in Russia for 160 years, copper business in the Old Believers' environment, among the forests, in hidden hermitages, reached an extraordinary height of artistic embodiment.

The brightest page in the history of Russian sacred plastic art became icons, crosses and folds, made in the foundries of the Vygovsky Pomor community. This Old Believer monastery, founded in 1694 on the Vyg River, in Karelia, considered itself the successor of the ancient Solovetsky monastery on the White Sea, and its founders, Saints Zosima and Savvaty Solovetsky, as their heavenly patrons. It is no coincidence that the images of these saints were spread both on icons and on folding doors. Already in the first half of the 18th century. Vygovskaya Pustyn became the largest economic, religious and cultural center of the Old Believers. The handwritten books, icons, small sculptures created at Vygu were distinguished by the unity of the artistic style, which received the name "Pomor".

To satisfy the prayer needs of the adherents of the Pomor bespopov consent, first of all, “correct” crosses were needed. Copper-cast Pomor crosses with the image of the "Crucifixion of Christ" were cast in an eight-pointed shape and a strictly defined composition - on the upper end was the "Savior Not Made by Hands" with the inscription "King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) Son of God". The same composition is repeated on a small Pomor cross, the central image of a pictorial icon, distinguished by the subtlety of writing and a pronounced decorative sound.

With further complication of the shape, the cross received side rectangular plates with paired images of the forthcoming Mother of God and St. Martha, the Apostle John the Theologian and the martyr Longinus the centurion. Such icon case crosses were often cut into not only the icon case frames, but also decorated pictorial icons. These crosses were cast in a variety of sizes - from very small ones, the surface of which was often decorated with multi-colored enamels, to large gilded ones, decorated with exquisite ornaments on the reverse. Excellent molding, fine casting and careful finishing - all these distinctive features of the Pomor small plastics were achieved by the high professionalism of chasers, casters and enamellers.

These signs clearly manifested themselves in the creation of a miniature composition "Savior Not Made by Hands", decorated with enamel of a rare dark red color.

The main types of products of the famous Vygovskaya "copper" were not only crosses, but also folds with a different composition of valves (bivalve, tricuspid, four-winged).

Among the repertoire of the Vygov masters, a special place belonged to small bivalve folds, which received the name "Pomorskaya Panagia". The form of the Old Russian panagia, formed in small plastic, was creatively reworked by Pomor craftsmen. On the square doors in medallions against a smooth dark blue enamel background there are compositions with the images of the Mother of God of the Sign and the Old Testament Trinity. The decorative decoration of the other folding is distinguished by a combination of a white-pink background with spectacular contrasting yellow dots on dark "corners". The reverse side of such miniatures was also decorated - in the form of one strict composition with the image of the eight-pointed Calvary cross, or in addition to the pattern in the form of a large rosette flower, colored with glassy enamels. Subsequently, the Pomor craftsmen slightly increased the size of the folding fold and supplemented it with a third panel with the image of the Crucifixion of Christ. Decorated with bright enamels with contrasting dots, these miniature pieces are reminiscent of precious pieces of jewelry created by ancient Russian craftsmen. Such small folds could be worn as pectoral foldable icons.

The same breast icons created by Pomor craftsmen are small three-leaf folds with the image of the Deisus composition. The combination of dark turquoise and white enamel, embossed star rosettes on the smooth surface of the background and rays on the nimbuses distinguishes a miniature work of the first half of the 18th century. In this folding, everything is admirable - the plastic development of the image and the thoughtful decoration of the front and back sides.

The most popular among the Pomor sculptures was the new iconographic version of the copper-cast three-winged folding "Deisus with selected saints", which was named "nine" according to the number of figures depicted on the wings. The idea of ​​the intercession of the Mother of God and the saints of the created monastery was embodied in a certain composition of the saints, each of whom were dedicated chapels in the prayer houses of the Vygov community. The variety of decorative furnishings of folds, decorated with multi-colored vitreous enamels, decorated with contrasting dots or a rare range of pink tones, is striking. On the reverse of the left wing, a composition depicting an eight-pointed Calvary cross was traditionally cast; the surface of other leaves could be decorated with a large rosette or cartouche. On the surface of the smooth frame, after visiting the Vygovskaya monastery, it was possible to carve a memorable date, initials or the name of the owner.

The second version of the folding "Deesis with selected saints" also became famous, on the side panels of which a different composition of the saints was depicted. Compositions of the folds of this folding have become widespread in the form of separate small "one-shot" icons.

The program work of the Pomor foundry workers was the four-leaf folding, or, as it was solemnly called, “large festive wings”. It is believed that originally a model of a large three-leaf folding folding was made, on the brands of which the twelve holidays are represented. Later, keeled kokoshniks and a fourth alignment were added to such square sections - this is how the image of a full four-leaf folding was formed. On the first three sections on the hallmarks, the twelve feasts are represented, and on the fourth - scenes of worship of the images of the Mother of God. This copper-cast piece of art, which has become a marching iconostasis. On the reverse side of one of the sash, there is traditionally a composition depicting the Calvary cross in an ornamental frame-headpiece. A special feature of individual copies will be the decoration of the turnover of the sash with a lush embossed ornament of curling shoots with a cartouche in the center. By order of the owner, a commemorative inscription could be cut on the surface of such a smooth frame.

After the creation of this four-winged folding vygov historians, probably, they could say about the mentor Andrei Denisov that he "led and arranged in the proper order the existing form in the copper-cast sections, which until then had been absent-minded."

It is still unknown who was the author of the four-folding folding model? Among the foundry masters on Vygu, whose names we know from written sources, were Novgorodians and people from different cities and villages. Both scribes and icon-makers, who painted picturesque images for the worshipers of the Vygovskaya monastery, could have taken part in the creation of samples of Pomor miniature plastics.

The high professionalism of the Vygov craftsmen consisted in the creation of a collapsible folding model, which made it possible to cast not only icons in the form of separate sections of independent stamps, but also various iconographic versions of three-leaf folding folding devices with images of festive compositions.

One of the most revered among the "desert dwellers" and numerous pilgrims will be a three-winged folding with the image of the twelve feast days "The Dormition of the Theotokos. Resurrection of Christ (Descent into Hell). Epiphany". Special attitude to this type of folding is associated with the main cathedral chapel of the Vygov community and its patronal feasts.

The accumulated skills of foundry contributed to the wide scope of the craft - the production of copper crosses and the gate were engaged in 5 sketes of the Vygov community. The products cast in these remote forges were sent to the monastery and then transported throughout the Russian land. Preserved handwritten texts of decrees-instructions on the art of foundry and enamel, compiled by Pomor craftsmen. They passed on their experience, advised how to prepare the ground for casting, grind the enamel and put different colors on the frames and crosses. “Then practice yourself in every business and in all sciences and understand clearly and you will be skillful in everything” - with these words the unknown master ends his instructions on foundry and enamel work.

To the circle of Pomor plastics belonged also marching iconostases, which included in their composition a cross - a crucifix surrounded by stamps depicting festive subjects and valves of the Pomor panagia, and in rare cases - and individual miniature images. Similar small pectoral icons with images of the Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk, the holy martyrs Kirik and Ulita and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker accompanied people during their wanderings and travels across the vast expanses of the Russian land. It is no coincidence that the Pomor craftsmen created another version of the three-winged folding, on the wings of which three different subjects are connected: “St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. Our Lady of All Who Sorrow Joy. Holy Martyrs Kirik and Julitta with selected saints. " Such an elegant gilded fold, cast in one of the hermitage workshops, as a Pomor relic, became a precious prayer image until the end of his life ...

Copper-cast icons, crosses and folds, created by talented Pomor casters and enamellers, have become models for numerous workshops throughout Russia, including for small handicraft establishments in Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod and other provinces. Thanks to the work of these rural foundry masters, copper icons and crosses, which have become widespread among the people, have become a widely available form of applied art.

The main place in the assortment of products of these handicraft workshops was occupied by crosses, which differed not only in a certain iconographic program, but also in compositional diversity. First of all, guslitsky craftsmen cast large eight-pointed altar crosses with a relief image of the "Crucifixion of Christ" and the inscription "INTSI" (Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews). Such crosses became widespread among the Old Believers-priests who accept the priesthood. "The Cross is the guardian of the entire Universe, the Cross is the beauty of the church ..." - this text has become an obligatory element in the design of the turnover of crosses that differ not only in size, but also in their decorative solution. A small cross with a high-relief image of the Crucifixion of Christ is adorned with gilding, which is cut into the centerpiece of a picturesque three-winged folding fold.

The iconic crosses, large and small, surrounded by icon-stamps and crowned with images of cherubim and seraphim on high pins, gained particular popularity in the folk environment. A clear compositional solution with a relief image of the Crucifixion of Christ, a combination of stylized plant and scaly ornaments, a two-color enamel scale highlight one of the expressive works of the guslitsky masters. The detailed iconographic program of a large iconographic cross, surrounded by 18 stamps with images of festive subjects, is a bright completion of the creative search of guslitsky foundry masters. Such crosses, often carved into picturesque icons or tinted boards, became the decoration of the interiors of many Old Believer churches.

From one handicraft workshop of the second half of the 18th century, it is possible that several works originate - a small icon "The Dormition of the Theotokos" and the middle of the folds "Selected Holidays", "Deesis with Selected Saints". The same shape of the top with the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, a similar color range of enamels covering the surface of objects in a dense layer - these common technological, iconographic and stylistic features allow these items to be attributed to the same circle of copper-cast plastic. Later, the folds with the two-row composition "Deesis with the Selected Saints" will be cast with massive domes, which will be decorated with a large flower rosette or the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands.

To the works of the late 18th century. belongs to a small crucifix, decorated with enamel of green and blue colors, with three-part curved endings of the branches. A special feature of this cross is the image at the lower end of the composition "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Nikita slaying the demon."

To the best examples of copper-cast plastics of the 18th century. belongs to the three-winged folding "Savior of Smolensk with the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky", decorated with an elegant color combination of yellow, green and blue enamel. The decorative sound of the image was enhanced by white enamel, partially preserved on the centerpiece frame. The same composition of the saints is made on the folds of the fold "Our Lady of Odigitria of Smolensk", topped with a figured pommel. “I place all my hope in You, Mother of God ...” - these words of the prayer, which not only adorned the copper-cast image, but also filled it with sounding content, became the embodiment of special reverence for the image of the Most Holy Theotokos.

In the XVIII century. there was also a different composition of images on the folds' valves. The festive themes complement the composition of the folding, in the centerpiece of which, on the smooth surface of the blue-green enamel background, there is a relief image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.

Following ancient Russian traditions, the shape of the Guslitsky and Zagarsk three-winged folding folds, repeating in miniature the Royal Doors of the temple iconostasis, will find the widest distribution in compositions with images of the Virgin and selected saints widely revered among the people. The large "panels" "Archangel Michael with selected holidays" and "The Passionate Mother of God with selected saints", having the general shape of the keeled end of the centerpiece and valves and decorated with geometric ornaments, are traditional works of the 19th century guslitsk casters.

It is when you look at these simple objects, made in small rural copper establishments, that you begin to understand and feel how completely special was the role of copper-cast plastics in the everyday life of a Russian person, with its joys and hardships. The image of St. Antipas of Pergamon, represented both on small light images and on folds, was prayed for getting rid of a toothache. The wide veneration of Saint Paraskeva Friday, the patroness of the family and trade, was embodied in a small, road-trip three-winged folding folding box and on an elegant gilded image, crowned with a pommel with six cherubs.

The Holy Martyrs Kirik and Ulita, who were venerated as patrons of the family and children, were depicted both on small folds with selected saints, and as part of four-part compositions that repeated Pomor miniature images. Another composition, crowned with a complex ornamental pommel, includes “one-shot” icons “Saint Nikita Beating the Demon”, “Martyrs Kirik and Ulita”, “Our Lady of Kazan” and “Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker”.

Such simple and modest images could be performed in numerous workshops of the Zagarsk villages of the Moscow region. So, in the villages of the Bogorodsky district of the Moscow province, which "fed" the copper industry, up to 150 establishments are known. But only a few of these workshops were engaged in casting crosses, icons and folds. In these rural establishments with traditional production, which included a smithy and a "printing house" - the room where the "earth" was kept and the forms were printed, simple and cheap products were cast, extremely rarely decorated with enamels ...

The craftsmen of these small handicraft establishments tried to expand their assortment and improve the quality of their products. So, in 1882 at the famous All-Russian art and industrial exhibition held in Moscow, Ivan Tarasov, a peasant from the village of Novoye, Bogorodsky district, Moscow province, was awarded "for copper images of very clean work and rather cheap prices." Later, in 1902, another master Fyodor Frolov from the same village, who owned a small handicraft establishment, presented his copper crosses at the All-Russian Handicraft and Industrial Exhibition in St. Petersburg.

The proximity of the repertoire of the Zagarsk and Guslitsk copper-cast plastics and its widespread existence do not allow us to more definitely distinguish the products of each of these numerous rural workshops. So, at the beginning of the XX century. the well-known researcher of Pomor books and casting V.G. Druzhinin attributed all the plastic produced in the Moscow province to the category of "guslitskaya or zagarskaya" and noted such a sign as "lightness".

The products of the guslitsk craftsmen were really light. Among these works, the casting made in the village of Antsiforovo stood out, which was sold in Moscow by weight in poods and much more expensive than the Zagarsk one. But the main distinguishing feature of guslitsk plastics, we believe, should be recognized as the increased decorativeness of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds. The surface of each guslitsky image is filled with an ornament in the form of curling shoots, stylized curls or simple geometric elements in the form of triangles, dots or stripes.

Plant shoots with small leaves and flowers adorn the image of the holy martyrs Antipas, Florus and Laurus. Another plant motif in the form of tall shoots with large buds-flowers, similar to the ornament of guslitsky manuscript books, was used by craftsmen to decorate the icon "St. Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom". An openwork pommel with the composition "King is King", crowned with images of cherubim and seraphim on high pins, will become one of the distinctive elements of guslitsky copper-cast works.

The image of the Mother of God, the "warm intercessor", in the guslitsk plastics will receive its unique artistic solution. The centerpiece of the fold "Our Lady of Kazan" with the pommel "Savior Not Made by Hands", "The Old Testament Trinity" and two cherubs are distinguished by an elegant combination of dark blue and white enamel. A curly shoot with flowers, adorning the halo of the Virgin and repeating against the background as the embodiment in metal of the words of the chant “like the Everlasting Color, we glorify Ty Bogomati”, will become an integral part of the ornamental patterns of guslitsk icons.

Prayer chants "will sound" on the frame of the copper-cast icon "The Intercession of the Virgin", decorated with glassy enamel of white, blue and green colors with rare spots of yellow. We believe that special reverence for this image is associated with the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos at the Rogozhskoye cemetery in Moscow, from the 18th century. which became the center of the Old Believers-priests.

The image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, merciful and quick in helping the intercessor of “all those who are in trouble,” will find the most vivid artistic embodiment in the copper-cast plastics of the guslitsk masters. An openwork pommel, a wealth of ornamental motifs in the form of a shoot against the background and a halo of the saint, stripes of curls in combination with bluish-black and white enamel create an image of increased decorativeness. Another large image, the entire surface of which is woven with ornaments and decorated with an elegant combination of white, bright blue and yellow enamel, will complete the creative search of the guslitsky masters.

In the foundries of the village of Nikologorsky Pogost on the Vladimir land, craftsmen produced copper-cast plastics with completely different characteristics. The craftsmen took into account the increased interest of the Old Believers in the ancient Russian "pre-Nikon" works and learned to imitate and even in a special way forge icons and crosses to match old samples.

The products of these workshops were bought in bulk by offeni merchants, who then not only sold icons and crosses to the surrounding villages, but also delivered goods to the fair in Nizhny Novgorod and other cities. For copper icons, the so-called "Pogost" casting, we believe, is characterized by a special plastic development of the image, repeating the ancient Russian compositions, forms and ornaments. The fold "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (Mozhaisky)", close to the works of ancient Russian wood carving, and the openwork icon "Saints Boris and Gleb", made using the perforated casting technique, are expressive samples of the products of these rural establishments.

Among the Old Believers, “ancient” copper-cast icons were especially popular, distinguished by a high-relief image of the Almighty Savior, with a two-fingered blessing gesture of the right hand and a closed Gospel in the left. The composition of the icon is completed by fields with a relief text of a chant dedicated to the feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord: "He was transformed on the mountain, Christ God, showed his disciples his glory ...". To confirm the "antiquity" of the created image of the master, the relief date "ZRV LETA" (7102 = 1594) was cast on the back of such icons, which is obviously associated with a certain historical event the end of the XVI century. The same date is cast on the reverse of the crucifix, which repeats the iconography of one of the revered ancient Russian samples.

Other features are the crosses, icons and folds made by Moscow Old Believer workshops, which make up a huge layer of copper-cast plastics. Artistic casting by the Old Believers in Moscow has become a new stage in the development of this type of applied art. The rapid formation of foundry was facilitated by the formation of the largest Old Believer centers in the city. In 1771, during the plague epidemic, the Rogozhskoe (priest) and Preobrazhenskoe (bespopovskoe Fedoseevskoe) cemeteries were founded in different parts of Moscow.

Copper-cast products for the community of the Rogozhsky cemetery were supplied from the guslitsky villages near Moscow. The situation was different with the production of copper crosses and icons for the community of the Preobrazhensky cemetery in the Lefortovo part of Moscow. In a short time, at the expense of wealthy merchant trustees, workshops were created for the correspondence of books and the production of pictorial and copper-cast icons. It is known that the founder of the community, Ilya Kovylin, traveled to Vyg and brought from there the text of the charter; in the image of the Vygovskaya monastery, the construction of the architectural ensemble of the Preobrazhensky cemetery was carried out.

We believe that Ilya Kovylin also got acquainted with the foundries that brought significant income to the Vygovskaya monastery. Already at the end of the 18th century, in the immediate vicinity of the Preobrazhensky cemetery, foundries were created on the territory of private households, which began to make crosses and folds “in the likeness of the Pomor”. These workshops primarily worked for their communities in Moscow and other cities, whose parishioners "prayed only to copper images, and that was the work of their fellow believers."

After long disputes with the Pomors about the correct form and inscriptions in the composition of the Moscow-made crosses, a well-thought-out and substantiated program developed by Vygov's mentors found its embodiment. Following the Pomor iconography, at the upper end of the cross was depicted the image of the "Savior Not Made by Hands", above the "Crucifixion of Christ" the inscription was cast: "King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) Son of God". The front surface of this cross, a crucifix, made in the second half of the 19th century, is decorated with multi-colored enamels that emphasize the main elements of the created composition.

A similar inscription: "King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) Son of God" was originally executed on the cross, which became the center of the composition of a large pictorial icon in a silver setting by Moscow masters early XIX v. But obviously, at the request of the owner, on the upper end of the copper-cast cross, the monogram “IC XC” was erased and the inscription: “INTSI” was engraved.

Moscow craftsmen constantly worked to expand the range and decorative design of copper-cast works, including small crosses, which were in great demand. So, in the composition of the property of the Old Believers who lived at the Preobrazhensky cemetery, crosses are often mentioned - crucifixes "of a smaller size with the Mother of God and the Apostle John the Theologian." For stability, such crosses were cast with a small trapezoidal base. A similar widened lower end is also made on the cross - a crucifix with three-part curved ends of the branches, the surface of which is decorated with multicolored enamels.

Iconic crosses with the forthcoming Mother of God and Saint Martha, the Apostle John the Theologian and the martyr Longinus the centurion became widespread among the Moscow Old Believers. A special feature of another casting was the date "1879." and the monogram "M.R.S.Kh." belonging to Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev, one of the famous chasers.

In the traditions of the Pomor foundry art, the three-winged folding "Deisus with selected saints", decorated with dense gilding, is executed. On the reverse side of this foldable there is a repeated composition depicting an eight-pointed Calvary cross in a figured cartouche.

In archival documents of the second half of the 19th century. often mentioned are three-leaf folds with the image of the Deisus composition, which has received a new decorative solution in Moscow copper establishments. High quality casting, conveying even the smallest details on the faces and figures of the Savior, the Mother of God and John the Baptist, distinguish these samples of the late 19th century. The surface of the valves is "woven" with a continuous floral ornament covered with glassy enamels. On the reverse side, in a decorated frame against the background of an unfolded panorama of the city of Jerusalem, the Calvary cross is depicted, protruding in relief against a sky-blue enamel background.

We believe that the Moscow masters embodied the idea of ​​a large three-part "Deesis", which is a composite composition with a high-relief image of the "Savior on the throne" and openwork images of the archangels Michael and Gabriel.

Among Moscow works, the "two-vertex" image of the Savior of Smolensky has gained wide popularity. The iconography of this composition by the reverends Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam Khutynsky reflected a locally revered pictorial image that was on the tower of the Moscow Kremlin and associated with the capture of Smolensk in 1514.

The appearance in the copper-cast plastic of a small double-leaf folding "Deisus. Guardian Angel and Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker ”is possibly also associated with the work of Moscow masters. The idea of ​​heavenly patronage for the Preobrazhensky community, embodied in Deesis, was completed in the images of the guardian angel and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. The appearance of this Moscow version of the double-leaf folding could be associated with the main prayer room in the male half of the architectural ensemble of the Preobrazhensky cemetery - the Assumption chapel and its chapel in the name of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.

The design of the reverse side of this small folding folding device repeats the composition of the famous Pomor Panagia. A similar folding folding with the image of the "Old Testament Trinity" and "Our Lady of the Sign", decorated with white glassy enamel, is a vivid example of the work of Moscow enamel painters.

The masters have repeatedly turned to the creation of various versions of the composition "The Old Testament Trinity", among which the large-format image stands out, characterized by a well-thought-out and balanced composition. The "two-vertex" image "The Old Testament Trinity", which has become widespread in the Old Believers' environment, is distinguished by the monogram of the master R.S. Khrustalev.

This Moscow master-chaser owns a large and varied range of monuments of copper-cast plastics, in which a special place is occupied by the four-winged folding "Twelve Holidays", made according to the model of R.S. Khrustalev. Increased dimensions of the folding fold, frames with embossed inscriptions over the stamps, multicolored enamels of the traditional Moscow scale distinguish this revised version of the Pomor fold.

Initials R.S. Khrustalev and his student (?), Master monogrammist S.I.B. there are numerous small "one-shot" images, repeating the hallmarks of a large four-winged folding with the image of the twelve feast days.

Such casts could have been made in one of the copper establishments that existed in the Lefortovo part of Moscow on Devyataya Rota Street. The history of the workshop, which belonged to the Moscow bourgeoisie Irina and Aksinya Timofeev, is being reconstructed from documents from the first half of the 19th century. ... It is known that the products of this copper institution were sold not only in Moscow, but also in St. Petersburg and other cities of Russia. It is with this workshop that we can confidently associate the appearance of the model of the “two-vertex” image “Our Lady of Kazan”. The combination of multi-colored enamels in the centerpiece of the icon and on the wide margins, decorated with stylized ornament in the form of a vine, creates a bright, elegant image. The icons "Our Lady of Kazan", created according to the model of the master Ignat Timofeev, found repetition in numerous castings of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. ...

In the second half of the XIX century. the history of this copper institution is connected with the new owner Ekaterina Petrova. The works of the workshop, created during this period of its existence, include the casting of such a large-format image as “Our Lady of Odigitria of Smolensk”.

Among the masterpieces of Moscow copper foundry and enamel art belongs the image of the Assumption of the Virgin. The multi-figured composition of the centerpiece is surrounded by wide margins decorated with intricate intertwining ornamentation. When you look at this copper-cast image, decorated with multi-colored enamels and gilding, you get the full impression of an icon in a precious setting. The effective use of contrasting colors of dark blue and white enamel enhances the decorative sound of this piece. It is possible that the original image was created for the Cathedral of the Assumption prayer house of the Preobrazhensky cemetery in Moscow. In the 1870s - 1880s. the model of this large-format composition was repeatedly "corrected" or "minted" by Rodion Khrustalev.

One of the brightest works of the famous master is the icon "Saints Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom." The composition of the icon with the solemn staging of the figures of saints and the relief image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, stylized floral ornament in the form of tall shoots with large buds, decor in the form of stripes of enamel of blue, green, blue-black, yellow and white colors - all this creates an image of increased decorativeness ... The basis for this striking creation was a modest composition of the work of a guslitsky master. Later R.S. Khrustalev repeatedly worked to recreate the image of the three ecumenical teachers and saints, using the model of the first half of the 19th century. The monogram of R.S. Khrustalev, the image "The Fiery Ascension of the Prophet Elijah" is also noted, which received special veneration among the Old Believers.

Memories of the Krasnoselsky foundry worker Anfim Serov have been preserved about the high quality of the work of the Moscow chasing masters: “... The uterus (model) ... is made by a master engraver. The work is very difficult, requiring a good master-practitioner ... The fact is that the model is pressed into the ground, then when it is taken out of the ground, it must come out freely, without taking the earth with it ... To make such a full-fledged model, the masters were only in Moscow ... " ... Such masters were Ignat Timofeev, Rodion Khrustalev, S.I.B. and other chasers, often known to us only by the initials on numerous copper-cast crosses, icons and folds of Moscow origin.

A small copper-cast icon depicting the Apostle John the Theologian and his disciple Prokhor praying to the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands against the background of the architectural ensemble of the Preobrazhensky cemetery had a memorable character for the Moscow Old Believers. The copper image of the "Prophet Daniel", a saint of the same name to Daniel Vikulin, one of the founders of the Vygovskaya Pomor monastery, had a similar memorable significance. Unlike the Pomor samples of the 18th century. with a dull smooth background, the Moscow castings with the image of the saint are made using the perforated casting technique.

Moscow foundry masters constantly worked on the creation of new iconographic versions of large and small compositions with images of saints. The image of the martyr Tryphon, depicted with a bird in his hand, was widely respected among the Old Believers. An extended version of the story of the rescued princess is reflected in numerous casts depicting the scene "The Miracle of George and the Dragon." Saints John the warrior, Charalampius and Bonifatius, depicted in the centerpiece of a small copper-cast icon, were revered as an assistant