BRIEF GLOSSARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS

M.: Russian language, 1995. 176 p.

Er.KHAN-PIRA

The dictionary is addressed primarily to students and graduate students in philology, as well as teachers of pedagogical colleges who teach classes in the propaedeutic course "Fundamentals of Linguistics". For a language teacher working in a secondary school, the dictionary will help to better understand the terms used by the authors of articles in the magazines "Russian language at school", "Russian speech", in the newspaper "Russian language".
The dictionary contains about 1500 terms. By its type, it belongs to explanatory terminological dictionaries. Another type of terminological dictionaries is encyclopedic. In domestic linguistic literature, it is represented, for example, by the encyclopedia "Russian Language" (1st edition - 1979, 2nd - 1997) and "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" (1990). D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova (3rd edition - 1985) is a mixed type of explanatory-encyclopedic terminological dictionary.
What is the difference between an explanatory terminological dictionary and an encyclopedic one? The first only interprets the term, i.e. reveals the content of the scientific concept contained in the term as a lexical meaning. The second, having given an interpretation, goes deeper into consideration of the object of naming itself. For example: " Antonyms. Words that are opposed by the most general and essential semantic feature for their meaning and are at the extreme points of the corresponding lexico-semantic paradigm.

Diligent - lazy, talk - be silent, truth - a lie, hot - cold» (Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms).

"ANTONYMS. 1. Words that have a qualitative feature in their meaning and therefore are capable of being opposed to each other as opposite in meaning. Yo Russian. good - bad, close - far, good - evil, poor - get rich.

2. Words opposed to each other as correlative (Russian. brother - sister), as denoting an oppositely directed action (Russian. walk - come) etc." ( O.S. Akhmanova. Dictionary of linguistic terms. M., 1966).

And here is the article “Antonyms” in the LES: “... words of one part of speech that have opposite meanings. Depending on the type of opposition expressed (cf. Antonyms) A. are divided into acc. classes, the main ones of which (further we talk about three classes of antonyms. - E.Kh.) <...>According to their structure, A. are divided into heterogeneous<...>and single root<...>. A special, unproductive variety of A. is formed by words that combine opposite meanings<...>.
There is a narrower understanding of A., for example, as only qualitative and only heterogeneous words, but this understanding of antonymy does not fully take into account all the possibilities of expressing the opposite in the language.
In addition, personalities are placed in linguistic encyclopedias - articles dedicated to famous linguists and / or articles about various directions (schools) in linguistics.
Work on any dictionary begins with the compilation of a dictionary - vocables (heading words) selected for presentation in the dictionary. The authors of the dictionary I am writing about tried to select the terms of modern linguistics, in particular, to present in the dictionary the terms of linguistic disciplines that were not included in the existing dictionaries of linguistic terms (for example, the terms of contrastive linguistics).
The dictionary does not include names of languages ​​and language families, linguistic schools and trends, terms of poetics, rhetoric, stylistics, names of special linguistic disciplines.
The dictionary is accompanied by an annotated list of the main terminological reference books on linguistics published in Russian, as well as a dictionary of Greek-Latin elements in linguistic terminology. Many dictionary entries have a comment area marked with a dark circle ·. True, sometimes this is not a comment in the exact sense of the word, but an illustration: for example, in the article “Archaisms” in the comment zone: “Lexical archaisms: vyya -'neck', in vain– ‘in vain’, this- 'this'. Semantic archaism - stomach in meaning 'a life'".
The dictionary closes the gap left by the last edition of D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova - affordable in content and price for a secondary school teacher.

Here are some of the entries that appear in the peer-reviewed dictionary, last published 13 years ago: Discourse. A speech work, considered in the fullness of its expression (verbal-intonational and paralinguistic, cf. Paralinguistics) and aspirations, taking into account all extralinguistic facts (social, cultural, psychological) essential for successful speech interaction”; " Diglossia. The presence in society of two communicative means that are complementary to each other (i.e., distributed between different communicative spheres) and are evaluated by the speakers on the scale “high - low”, “solemn - ordinary”.

« emic. Representing a linguistic entity belonging to a level invariants(cm. Levels). Wed Ethical. Emic units.
The term “E.” is formed from the term “phonemic” and extends not only to units of the sound system, but also to more complex units of the language.
Emic units include all units in the name of which there is term element -ema (phoneme, toneme, morpheme and etc.)"; " Ethical. Representing a linguistic entity belonging to the variable level (see. Levels) <...>. Ethical Units. The term “E.” is formed from the term “phonetic” and extends not only to sound units, but also to more complex units. To ethical units in phonology are sounds, in morphology - morphs.

I will make a few remarks on what seems to me controversial or inaccurate in the dictionary.
In the article dialect language we read: “A conditional concept denoting form of existence language<...>". First, what does "conditional concept" mean? In logic, nothing seems to be known about him. And how can a concept, being a form of thought, "designate" anything? Denotes a word. The concept does not have a nominative (nominative) function. It reflects the characteristics of an object or class of objects.
In the article Paronymy the following definition of this linguistic phenomenon is given: "Partial sound similarity of words (paronyms) with their full or partial semantic difference." And in the article Paronyms it is said that "these are words that have morphological and phonetic similarities, but differ in meaning." In my opinion, these two definitions do not agree with each other: the phenomenon is understood more broadly than its manifestation, incarnation. And what does "morphological similarity" mean? Paronymy And paronyms- multi-valued terms. Maybe, as it was in other cases (for example, in articles Proto-language, Declension, Syntagmatics), one should go for the display of ambiguity. After all, with one understanding of these terms excavator And escalator, irrigator And alligator not paronyms, but paronomases, and with another - paronyms.
The definition of terms seems to be unclear pleonasm And tautology, which makes it unclear how they differ. An attempt to point out their difference, made in the comment area of ​​the article Tautology(“Unlike pleonasm, tautology is always an attribute of speech ( ususa), it is not included in the system and norm of the language"), does not save, in my opinion, the situation, since pleonasm is also a phenomenon of speech, not language: in the article Pleonasm we find: “Redundancy of expressive means used to convey the lexical and grammatical meaning of the statement. Like property text P. opposed ellipse». statement- synonym text. And here usus- hardly a synonym for the terms speech, utterance, text, speech work contrary to what is stated in the article Tautology.

Term defined as follows: "A word or phrase denoting the concept of a special area of ​​knowledge or activity." If we proceed from the two-sidedness of the word as a sign, then such an understanding of the term seems more accurate: a word or a set phrase, the lexical meaning of which is a scientific (theoretical) concept or a concept of a special field of activity. This, by the way, will make it possible to distinguish a scientific term from terms, for example, gymnastics, plumbing or ice dancing.

Terminology interpreted as "the transition of a commonly used word into a term". And it is added: "At the basis of terminology lies a metaphor." The acquisition of a commonly used terminological meaning does not yet mean its departure from the language in its direct meaning (cf. insignificant as an ordinary word and as a legal term – ‘null and void’). And here determinization: "the transition of a term into a common word, accompanied by a loss of connection with a special (scientific) concept and the acquisition of a new meaning, usually metaphorical."
But is epicenter ceased to be a geological term because it had a colloquial metaphorical meaning? In the article Denotation (extension) it is said that this is “the content of a sign indicating its subject relatedness, i.e. a set of objects of reality that can be called a given language unit (cf. Referent). Opposite Significat». Significat is defined as follows: “The conceptual content language sign, which opposes it to other signs and is represented as a set sem". BUT sema (semantic factor) is the smallest component of the meaning of a word. Seme in the sphere of grammatical meaning is called grammeme". According to the dictionary, it turns out that the denotation is inside the linguistic sign, and not outside it. And then the question arises: how do they divide the content side of the verbal sign, significat, denotatum, as well as the denotative meaning (the term existing in linguistics denotative meaning not in the dictionary) As you know, the term denotation polysemantic. In the work of acad. Yu.D. Apresyan “Lexical semantics” we find: “The denotation of a sign is the class of facts it denotes, and the significate is the common features of all types of this class. Perhaps, therefore, the denotative identity of signs with their significative difference. A classic example of this discrepancy is the phrase center of gravity of a triangle And median point: these names really set the same object of reality, but allow you to think of it in different ways ”(Selected Works, part I. M., 1995. P. 60). In the already mentioned dictionary D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkov's denotation is "an object or phenomenon of the reality around us, with which this linguistic unit is correlated." In the "Logical Dictionary-Reference" N.I. Kondakova (M., 1975) a denotation is “a thing in the broadest sense, as something that can be named and designated by a name (A. Church)... In other words, a denotation is the subject of a name... But such a case is also possible when this or that expression makes sense, but does not have a denotation (cf. king of France in the 20th century goblin, centaur, witch.- E.Kh.) ... Sometimes the terms denotation, designatum And referent identify” (p. 139).

In the LES it is said about the denotation - “designated object”, then it is written that the term denotation is used in four meanings: 1) the same as referent(an object of extralinguistic reality, which the speaker has in mind when pronouncing this speech segment);
2) “a set of objects of reality (things, properties, relationships, situations, states, processes, actions, etc.) that can be called a given unit (due to its linguistic meaning); usually we are talking about the denotation of lexic. units"; 3) "an element of the extension (i.e., a set of objects that can be called a given linguistic unit)". With this understanding, any element of the extension is considered to be a denotation, regardless of which of them corresponds to a certain element. specific speech segment. For example, it is said that both Suvorov and Menshikov are among the denotations of the word generalissimo. The extension in this case qualifies as a "class of denotations"; 4) "the same as denotative meaning- the conceptual core of meaning, i.e. ...a component of meaning, abstracted from stylistic, pragmatic, modal, emotional, subjective, communicative, etc. shades. The term usage is quite common, which does not distinguish between D. and the referent ... "

As you can see, for the "Concise Dictionary ..." denotation= term denotative meaning. I believe that the authors of the dictionary should have given at least one more meaning of the term denotation and clarify the relationship of this term (in their understanding) with the term significat. According to the dictionary jargon- "a speech variety, the main function of which is to express belonging to a relatively autonomous social group through the use of specific words, forms and turns"; slang- "one. a variety of the national language, the speech of the urban lower classes (in the most striking form inherent in the English language) ... 2. The same as jargon»; slang- "one. A sociolect of a separate group, characterized by arbitrarily chosen, often modified elements of one or more natural languages ​​(lexical and derivational, less often grammatical). Argo is created with the aim of closed communication within a given group, isolating this group from the rest of society and hiding the subject of communication (secret language) ... Argo ofenei, beggars, wool beaters, shapovals. Thieves' Argo. 2. Same as jargon»; sociolect(social dialect) - "a set of linguistic features characteristic of the speech of a certain social group (professional, age, class, etc.) within the framework of one form or another of the existence of a language."

First, it is noteworthy that only slang is defined through a generic, apparently, term sociolect, but slang And jargon- No. But a term that has only one species in its subordination cannot be generic: in order to establish a genus-specific relationship, at least the presence of two subordinate terms is necessary. Secondly, what does "speech variety" mean when it comes to understanding jargon? Of course, jargon is reproduced in speech, but, in my opinion, it is an autonomous lexical-semantic system as part of one of the forms of existence of a language (colloquial or literary language in its colloquial style). In other words, jargon is a linguistic phenomenon.
Thirdly, when interpreting the first meaning of the term slang it is inaccurately said about the “variety of the national language”: in order to have the status of a variety, one must have its own, non-borrowed levels of the language, and slang has only one of its own - lexical-semantic. And then, not very neatly formulated: "a variety ... language, speech the lower classes of the city." Fourthly, the interpretation of the meaning of the specific term through the generic must pass the test of substitution (substitution) instead of the generic term of its interpretation. Try replacing the term sociolect its interpretation in the text of the article Argo. You will immediately be drawn to edit it. By the way, it seems to me that, unlike all the argots, jargons, slangs that arose and are arising spontaneously, there was a very strongly conscious beginning in the slang of the ofenei, which in this respect brings it closer to the so-called artificial languages.

Functional styles are understood by the dictionary as “variants of the literary language, due to various socially significant areas of communication. Each functional style is represented by a collection speech genres". And after the sign ·, it is added: “In the modern Russian literary language, the following functional styles are traditionally distinguished: everyday-literary, official-business, journalistic (newspaper-political), scientific and industrial-technical.” It seems to me that for the purity of the genre of the explanatory dictionary, it would be more accurate to place the mention of the manifestation, manifestation of functional styles in the commentary zone.
hardly a term everyday literary style traditional. Much more traditional colloquial. In addition, since all functional styles are styles of the literary language, the term element is redundant. literary. The understanding of journalistic style as newspaper-political seems to be narrow. He manifests, manifests himself not only in newspaper, but also in magazine speeches, as well as in radio-television and public speaking. And thematically, it is not closed by its use in a political text.
term speech genre, according to the dictionary, denotes "a set of speech works (texts or statements) united by the same use of stylistic means of the language." The group of speech genres is integrated into a certain functional style.

First, the terms were not highlighted, as is customary in the dictionary. statement And text, interpreted in their alphabetical place.
Secondly, it would be more accurate to write "united using the same stylistic means of language."
Thirdly, a set of speech works cannot be integrated into a functional style if the latter is a fact of the language (and the dictionary recognizes it as such): speech is not part of the language, these are close, not existing without each other, but still different phenomena.
In relation to literary speech, I would define the term speech genre: a type of speech product, characterized by a specific communicative goal and the use of certain means of a particular functional style. MM. Bakhtin wrote: “Even in the most free and unconstrained conversation, we mold our speech according to certain genre forms ... These speech genres are given to us almost in the same way as our native language is given to us” (Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979. P. 257 ).
In the comment area of ​​the article speech genre functional styles and some speech genres in which these styles are applied are listed. For some reason, there is no industrial and technical style among the styles mentioned in the comment area of ​​the article functional styles. It seems to me that there is no clarity in the distinction between language and speech: “the scientific style has the following speech genres ...”, “the speech genres of the official business style include ...” and, finally, “such speech genres are distinguished in the journalistic style ...". Genres speeches in the understanding accepted by the dictionary, fell into language. In the article Ablaut not a word about internal flexion. There are a number of inaccuracies and direct oversights (for example, in the article Speech there is a link to the article The code, but it is not in the dictionary, the opposite is in the article Antonyms: links to the article Paradigm no, but it is in the dictionary).

With all the shortcomings and with all the sometimes laxity of the metalanguage of the dictionary, it will still be useful to students of philological faculties, language teachers. It remains to be hoped that the authors will have the opportunity to prepare its 2nd, revised and enlarged, edition.

This dictionary of terms used in standard school courses of the Russian language is a thesaurus-type dictionary, or ideographic. Originally by the term thesaurus as a rule, dictionaries were designated, giving an idea of ​​the lexical system of any language with maximum completeness. Maximum - both in the sense that they included all the words of a given language, and in the sense that these words were accompanied by examples of their use in texts. A thesaurus is, by definition, an open-ended dictionary, which is why the following naming was used for it: thesaurus translated from ancient Greek means ‘treasure, treasury’ , that is, a complete collection of information about all the words of a particular language.

Currently thesaurus called a dictionary, which does not have to be represented all vocabulary of the given language, but in it all words are grouped by subject headings. The position of a lexical unit of a language (word or phrase) in the thesaurus is determined by its meaning in that language. And, accordingly, knowledge of the types and system of semantic relations that a given word enters into allows us to judge its meaning.

In some works (and not only philological ones), the thesaurus is understood quite broadly: it is interpreted as a certain representation and description of a system of knowledge about reality, which either an individual information carrier or some group of such carriers has.

Linguistic literature also uses the term ideographic dictionary(from Greek idéa ‘concept, idea, image’ and gráphō ‘I am writing’). This is a dictionary in which words are not arranged in alphabetical order, but on the basis of their semantic proximity. In such a dictionary, each word occupies a certain cell of some pre-built classification of concepts, although within the framework of a particular semantic group, words can go one after another and alphabetically. The main purpose of an ideographic dictionary is to give a semantic picture of the environment of a particular concept and a picture of the entire vocabulary of a given language as a whole. Dictionaries of this kind do not come from the word as a unit of language, but from the concept expressed by this word.

Inside the ideographic dictionaries, we can distinguish:

. ideological dictionaries based on the logical classification of the conceptual space of the language;

. analog, or associative dictionaries based on the psychological associations of those objects and phenomena of non-linguistic reality that are named by the central word;

. thematic dictionaries where words are grouped according to certain topics;

. picture dictionaries in which the meanings of thematically grouped words are revealed through the given pictures and other kinds of visual illustrations.

We offer an option ideological ideographic dictionary, or thesaurus dictionary in the modern sense of the word. This dictionary-thesaurus contains linguistic terminology used in the school course of the Russian language.

Today, in secondary schools, there are several lines of textbooks and educational kits "Russian language" recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for secondary schools.

In all sets, the educational material is structured by levels from phonetics to syntax, including sections on spelling, punctuation and speech development. At the same time, there are certain discrepancies in the presentation of the theory (in particular, there is no unified approach to transcription, separation of parts of speech, description of phrases and types of subordinate clauses, etc.), there is no uniform order of sections and topics, and there is obvious inconsistency in the terminology used. All this creates tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from one school to another), and in the formation of requirements for applicants to a liberal arts university.

It is known that in a number of schools the Russian language is studied according to alternative and experimental curricula, which offer a significantly modified course. In addition, the introduction of the Unified State Examination in secondary school has contributed to the fact that most of the time in Russian language lessons is now devoted to practicing and consolidating the spelling and punctuation skills necessary for completing test tasks. A Russian teacher practically does not have the opportunity within the framework of the school curriculum to fully and deeply present the Russian language as a complex, hierarchically organized system with its own internal logic.

The main objectives of this dictionary are the systematization, unification, description and interpretation of modern school linguistic terminology, which is common to all(or for the vast majority) school textbooks and manuals on the Russian language. But in some cases, we prefer a more in-depth look at a particular section of the course, when this contributes to the creation of a coherent and logically consistent picture and a more detailed development of individual groups of concepts.

Thesaurus-type dictionaries help to structure, classify and model concepts and relationships related to a particular scientific field. A harmonious terminological system is a kind of model of knowledge in a particular field of science, reflecting its internal logic. It, as a rule, has a complex organization and is a multi-level system, and individual terms not only enter the system of concepts of the corresponding branch of knowledge, but also structure it in a certain way. This is what we see relevance and practical value proposed school vocabulary.

This work is the first experience of integrating and systematizing the basic composition of linguistic concepts and terms used in secondary schools, but we would like to note that when working on this dictionary, we tried to follow the tradition established in the 1980s-1990s. Head of the Department of General and Comparative-Historical Linguistics, Faculty of Philology, Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov Academician Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, who rightly considered the teaching of the native language to be the most important part of applied linguistics.

In the 1990s, under the leadership of Yuri Vladimirovich Rozhdestvensky, a preliminary version of the thesaurus dictionary of school education terms "Knowledge of Knowledge" was conceptually developed and compiled, which he was engaged in until his death. Such a system of concepts, built on the principle “from the general to the particular”, was seen by him as a systematized set of information of various kinds necessary for a schoolchild and a school teacher - from mathematical and biological concepts to exercises in physical culture. This kind of dictionary-thesaurus seemed to Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky to be the main book of both a schoolchild and a school teacher.

Unfortunately, during the life of Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General education thesaurus): Morality. Moral. Ethics. Moscow: Flinta, Nauka, 2002; Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General education thesaurus): Society. Semiotics. Economy. Culture. Education. M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2002. Our project, of course, arose as a tribute to the memory of Yuri Vladimirovich.

Separately, we consider it necessary to stipulate the following. It is impossible to reduce linguistic terminology in general and school terminology in particular to a common denominator. In linguistics and in the school practice of teaching linguistic disciplines (Russian, foreign languages ​​and, in some schools, classical ancient languages ​​and the foundations of linguistics), there is a variety of approaches and concepts, and therefore a variety of terms and concepts behind them. We pay special attention to the fact that:

the proposed definitions of terms are not considered by the authors as some kind of alternative to those definitions that are presented in existing dictionaries, encyclopedias and textbooks;

because this dictionary is not encyclopedic examples given in a number of dictionary entries (in particular, on various uses of certain forms of the verb or on different types of dictionaries in the section "Lexicography") do not claim to be complete and are not considered by the authors as all-encompassing and exhaustive.

Formally, work on the text of the dictionary was distributed as follows. I.I. Bogatyreva wrote the following parts: "The main sections of the science of language", "Morfemics", "Word formation" and "Lexicology" (in full), as well as parts of the section "Morphology" (starting from the article "Declination" to the end of the first subsection and within the subsection "Parts of Speech" - from its beginning to the article "Compound Numbers" inclusive) and the first part of the "Syntax" section (from its beginning to the article "Proper Direct Speech" inclusive). O.A. Voloshina wrote the following parts: “General Questions”, “Phonetics”, “Writing” and “Lexicography” (in full), as well as parts of the section “Morphology” (from the beginning of the section to the article “Case” inclusive and within the subsection “ Parts of speech" - from the article "Pronominal words" to its end) and the second part of the "Syntax" section (starting from the article "Sentence" to the end of the section).

In conclusion, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our reviewers A.A. Volkov, O.V. Nikitin, N.A. Borisenko for their attentive and friendly reading of this dictionary and for their valuable constructive comments. We are grateful to M.Yu. Sidorova, whose critical remarks helped us eliminate some shortcomings that were in the manuscript version of the text. Separate words of gratitude and appreciation go to the editorial board of the Russky Yazyk newspaper of the September 1 Publishing House represented by L.A. Gonchar and E.A. Ivanova, without whose participation and support it would be difficult for us to imagine writing this text.

All terms in the dictionary are divided into groups depending on the thematic sections of the school course of the Russian language in which this concept is used. The dictionary has the following structure:

The main sections of the science of language

General issues

Phonetics

Morphemics

word formation

Morphology

Syntax

Lexicology

Lexicography.

These sections basically correspond to the levels of the language structure. The terms are collected in nests according to their meaning and are grouped around the basic concept with which they are most often associated by genus-species or cause-and-effect relationships. Nests, in turn, are combined into subsections, and so on.

At the beginning of each part, a list of terms included in it is given, without interpretation: so that you can see the logic of their succession to each other and the relationships they enter into. After that, interpretations of the same terms given in the same order are offered. Combining an ideographic dictionary with an explanatory one helps to develop optimal interpretations of the meanings of words. After all, the semantic content of the term is better and more fully revealed by determining its place in the structure of the concepts of the corresponding field of knowledge.

To find the desired term in the dictionary, you need to refer to the Alphabetical Index, which is a list of terms in alphabetical order indicating the page on which the definition of the term you are looking for is given.

The heading word of the dictionary entry is given in bold type, while for borrowed terms their etymology is given in brackets. The dictionary entry contains the definition of the term and a detailed explanation of the corresponding linguistic concept.

Many dictionary entries are provided with examples. As examples, individual words, phrases and whole sentences (often - quotes from works of fiction) are given, clearly illustrating various aspects of the characterized linguistic phenomenon. All illustrations are in italics. If it is necessary to highlight a single word, morpheme or sound in the quoted text, bold italic is used.

In a dictionary entry devoted to the interpretation of a term, there are often references to other dictionary entries, since each term does not appear in isolation, but is closely related to other terms of the same conceptual area. Such references are given in bold type and enclosed in brackets.

Readers' attention should be drawn to the fact that almost all terms from the first section are presented in subsequent sections of the dictionary, but in their other meanings, since they are used in scientific and educational literature to refer to both a certain section of linguistics and one or another subsystem of the language itself. , for example:

Morphemics 1- a section of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics 2- part of the language system, which is a set of morphemes isolated in words, their types and the technique of connecting with each other within the word.

The tables, diagrams and figures used in the text of the dictionary help to illustrate the explained phenomena in a compact and visual way.

For the convenience of readers, the minimum number of generally accepted abbreviations is used, which are easily deciphered and widely used in any scientific and educational literature.

The main sections of the science of language

Phonetics(from Greek phōnētikós - sound, voice) - a section of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a language. The subject of phonetics is made up of such material language units as speech sounds, syllables, word stress, and phrasal intonation.

Since the sound matter of a language can be studied from different angles, it is customary to distinguish between acoustic, articulatory, perceptual and functional phonetics.

acoustic phonetics explores the sounds of human speech as physical phenomena and describes their characteristics such as height (depending on the frequency of vibrations), loudness or strength (depending on the amplitude), duration and timbre of the sound. Articulatory phonetics considers the anatomy and physiology of the human speech apparatus, describes which organs of speech are involved in the pronunciation of certain types of sounds. Perceptual phonetics studies the features of perception and analysis of speech sounds by the human organ of hearing - the ear. functional phonetics (phonology) considers sound phenomena as elements of the language system that serve to form morphemes, words and sentences.

We can also distinguish descriptive, historical and comparative phonetics. Subject descriptive phonetics - the features and general conditions for the formation of sounds characteristic of a given language in a certain period of its existence (most often the phonetic structure of the modern language is taken), patterns of changes in sounds in the speech stream, general principles for dividing the sound stream into sounds, syllables and larger pronunciation units. historical phonetics traces the development of the sound structure of a language over a long period of time (sometimes since the appearance of a given language). Comparative phonetics compares the sound structure of the native language with other languages, which allows not only to better see and learn the features of a foreign language, but also to understand the patterns of the native.

Orthoepy(Greek orthoépeia, from orthós - correct and épos - speech) - a section of phonetics dealing with pronunciation norms, their justification and establishment.

The concept of orthoepy includes both the pronunciation of individual sounds, including taking into account the specific conditions for their implementation, and the sound design of whole words or statements. For example, for the Russian language, the place of stress associated with the formation of grammatical forms is of great importance.

The orthoepic norms of the Russian language developed in their most important features in the first half of the 17th century. as the norms of the Moscow dialect, which over time began to acquire the character of national norms. They were finally formed in the second half of the 19th century, although in some cases there were fluctuations. Modern pronunciation norms of the Russian literary language include both features of Moscow and Leningrad (Petersburg) pronunciation.

The orthoepic norm, unlike the orthographic one, does not always affirm only one of the pronunciation options as the only correct one, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, the coexistence of several equal options is allowed, where, as a rule, one is leading or more desirable. So, the correct pronunciation is considered to be e[zh'zh '], in and[zh’zh ’]at, after [zh’zh’]e with a soft long sound [zh '], and e[lj], in and[lzh]at, after [lzh]e- with a solid long; right before[zh'zh '] and And before[wait'] and, ba[s '] ein And ba[s]ane, [a door And [a door, P[o]esia And P[a]ezia.

Orthoepic norms are established by linguists - specialists in the field of phonetics, who take into account a variety of factors: the prevalence of the pronunciation option, its compliance with the objective laws of language development, connection with tradition, etc.

Graphics(Greek graphikḗ, from gráphō - I write, I draw) - a section of the science of writing that determines the inventory of signs used in a given writing system (these signs are commonly called graphemes), and the rules and methods for designating sound units in writing.

The graphic system of Russian writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet and is arranged quite rationally: the number of phonemes in the Russian language is slightly larger than the number of letters in the Russian alphabet. In 1928, N.F. Yakovlev derived and substantiated the mathematical formula for constructing the most convenient and economical alphabet, and Russian graphics almost correspond to this formula.

The rationality of Russian graphics is primarily due to its syllabic principle, which manifests itself in the transfer of soft consonants and the phoneme j "yot" in writing.

It should be understood that both graphics and spelling are related to the rules for using graphemes, but in different ways. Graphics studies and formulates the rules for the correspondence of letters to phonemes only in cases where the choice of a letter is determined only by the sound environment (or sound context) and prescribes the use of certain letters, regardless of which words they are part of. Orthography is a system of rules for writing significant units of a given language.

Spelling(Greek orthographía, from orthós - correct and gráphō - I write) - a branch of the science of language that deals with spelling norms and prescribes the choice of one of the spelling options allowed by graphics.

The central section of spelling establishes a set of rules and principles for designating speech sounds with letters in writing. Modern Russian orthography uses several principles: morphological, phonetic and traditional.

Other sections of spelling establish rules for the continuous, separate or hyphenated spelling of words and their parts; determine the rules for transferring parts of words from one line to another (taking into account both syllabic division and the morphemic structure of the word); formulate the rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters, as well as the design of graphic abbreviations. Separately, the principles for the transmission of borrowed words (mainly proper names) are determined. Usually, either the transcription method of spelling is used, or the transliteration method, i.e. foreign words are written taking into account their pronunciation or letter by letter, taking into account their spelling, by means of another alphabet.

The theory of Russian spelling and the definition of the principles of its construction dates back to the works of V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov (mid-18th century). In the history of Russian writing, there were two reforms (1708-1710 and 1917-1918), which contributed both to streamlining the alphabet and improving spelling rules. But the historical changes that are constantly taking place in the language, the enrichment of its vocabulary require regular work to improve the set of spelling rules. To do this, in 1904, the Spelling Commission was created at the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Today, the Spelling Commission works at the Institute of the Russian Language. VV Vinogradov RAS, both theoretical linguists and practicing teachers take part in it.

Lexicology(from the Greek lexikós - related to the word and lógos - teaching) is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of the language, or vocabulary.

The main tasks of lexicology are:

Definition of a word as a unit of vocabulary;

The study of words in their relation to non-linguistic reality;

Analysis of the semantic structure of the word;

Definition and description of the main types of lexical units;

Characteristics of the lexico-semantic system of the language, that is, the identification of the internal organization of lexical units and the analysis of their connections and relationships;

The history of the formation of vocabulary, the laws of its functioning and the analysis of trends in the development of the modern lexical system of the language;

Principles of functional-stylistic classification of words.

Lexicology also explores ways to replenish and develop the vocabulary, based both on the use of the internal resources of a given language, and on attracting resources from outside (borrowings from other languages).

It is possible to single out historical, comparative and applied lexicology. historical lexicology studies the history of words, including in connection with the history of the concepts referred to by these words, changes in various groups of words - both in the literary language and in dialects, processes in the semantic structure of words, etc. Comparative Lexicology studies the vocabulary of different languages, and both individual words and groups of words, or semantic fields (for example, kinship terms, color terms) can be compared. To the sphere applied Lexicology includes lexicography, culture of speech, linguistic pedagogy, theory and practice of translation.

Phraseology(from Greek phrásis - expression and lógos - word, doctrine) - a branch of linguistics that studies the semantic, morphological-syntactic and stylistic features of phraseological units in their current state and historical development.

The main tasks of phraseology are:

Study of the sign nature of phraseological units of the language;

Establishing the specifics of words and their meanings, implemented as part of phraseological units;

Determination of the syntactic roles of phraseological units and features of their functioning in speech;

The study of the formation of new meanings of words based on the phraseological context;

Determination of the systemic nature of the phraseological composition and, in connection with this, the description of synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy and variability of phraseological units.

The most important problem of phraseology is the delimitation of phraseological units from combinations of words that are formed, but not reproduced in speech, and the determination on this basis of the features of phraseological units. The issue of including communicative units such as proverbs, sayings and combinations formed according to the standard model with the associated meaning of words (such as fall into a rage evil takes).

Phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline arose in Russian linguistics in the 40-50s. 20th century

Etymology(Greek etymología from étymon - truth and lógos - word, doctrine) - a branch of linguistics dealing with the study of the origin of words and the reconstruction of the lexical system of the language of the most ancient (including pre-literate) period.

Etymology as a scientific discipline originated in Ancient Greece, and in antiquity the goal of etymological analysis was to search for and determine the original, original, or "true" meanings of words. At the present stage of development of linguistics, the subject of etymology is to find out at what time, in what language, according to what word-formation model and with what meaning a particular word appeared, and then - to determine the phonetic and semantic changes that occurred with this word in the history of the language and thus predetermining its present appearance.

To clarify the origin of words and restore their history, etymology must take into account the data of a number of scientific disciplines - both philological proper (comparative historical linguistics, dialectology, semasiology, onomastics), and other humanitarian and social (logic, history, archeology, ethnography).

Lexicography(from the Greek lexikós - related to the word and gráphō - I write) - a section of linguistics that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries and studying them.

It is customary to distinguish between theoretical and practical lexicography. Subject theoretical lexicography - the whole complex of problems associated with the development of macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, volume and nature of the vocabulary, principles for the arrangement of material in the dictionary) and microstructure of the dictionary (structure of the dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions and interpretations, the presence of different types of information about the word, types of language and other illustrations, etc.). Practical Lexicography performs extremely important social functions, since it ensures the normalization of the language, teaching the language (both native and foreign), makes interlingual communication possible.

Lexicography represents a word in the totality of all its properties, gives us an idea of ​​its semantic structure, grammatical and stylistic features of individual lexical units, and therefore the dictionary is not only an indispensable guide to the language, but also the most important tool for scientific research. Moreover, modern linguistics seeks to embody in a dictionary form different aspects of existing knowledge about the language, therefore, not only words, but also other language units - morphemes, phraseological units, phrases, quotations become the object of description of lexicography.

Morphemics(from Greek morphḗ - form) - a section of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Subject descriptive Morphemics is the consideration of the following questions:

Phonological structure of different types of morphemes;

Various morphonological processes occurring at the junctions of morphemes, or morphemic sutures;

Rules for the compatibility of morphemes with each other and the restrictions imposed in the language on these combinations;

Conditions for varying morphemes in speech;

Semantic properties of morphemes;

Numerous types of relations between roots and affixes - synonymous, homonymous, antonymous, etc.;

Determination of criteria for the classification of morphemes and the establishment of different types of morphemes;

Systematization of words according to their morphemic composition, as well as the development of principles and procedures for morphemic analysis;

The study of the morphemic composition of various parts of speech, as well as different categories of words within a particular part of speech.

Descriptive morpheme is opposed to historical, which studies the features of the formation and development of the system of morphemes of the native language, the sources of the emergence of new morphemes in the language, the ways of mastering borrowed morphemes and their interaction with native Russian morphemes.

Morphemics is equally closely connected with both word formation and morphology. Previously, it was included in the composition of word-formation disciplines. But recently it has been singled out as an independent section of the science of language with a special object of study - a morpheme.

word formation- a section of linguistics that studies the ways and means of creating words, the rules and techniques for their production, the structure of derivatives and compound words - both formal and meaningful.

Word formation solves the following tasks:

Establishes and describes the main patterns of derived (or motivated) words;

Offers their classification;

Studies word-formation series and nests, word-formation (or derivational) processes, meanings and categories;

Determines the principles of the device of the word-formation system as a whole.

The word-building structure of derivative words and the whole system of word-building means of a particular language changes over time. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between synchronous and diachronic word formation. synchronous, or descriptive, word formation studies the motivational relationships between words that coexist in the same historical period of a given language, without taking into account the etymological situation. diachronic, or historical, word formation studies the history of the emergence of individual words, the development and historical changes in their structure, changes in formal and semantic relationships between related words.

The specificity of the subject of word formation in the structure of the language is due to the peculiarities of the derivational meanings themselves and the external means of their expression. This section of linguistics describes all the affixes presented in the words of the language, associating them with certain word-formation types - productive and unproductive. So, according to L.V. Shcherba, here we consider both “how words are made” (i.e., the structure of words already existing in the language), and “how words are made” (i.e., the potential for creating new words). The word-formation types themselves are studied from different angles: derivational affixes, grammatical and semantic characteristics of derivatives and generating words, morphonological phenomena at the junctions of morphemes in a motivated word (alternation of sounds, truncation of stems, superposition of morphs on each other, change in the place of stress, etc.) etc.), stylistic characteristics and scope of functioning of new words.

Morphology(from Greek morphḗ - form and lógos - teaching) - a section of grammar, the main object of which is the grammatical properties of words and their significant parts (morphemes). Morphology, understood as a “grammatical doctrine of the word” (V.V. Vinogradov), together with syntax, which is a “grammatical doctrine of a sentence,” constitutes grammar.

Borders descriptive morphology is understood in different concepts in different ways. It may include:

The doctrine of the structure of the word (i.e. morphemic);

Information on word formation;

The doctrine of inflection, various paradigms and inflectional types that exist in the language;

The doctrine of grammatical meanings and the use of different grammatical forms and categories in texts (or grammatical semantics);

The doctrine of parts of speech;

morphological typology.

historical morphology deals

Description of changes occurring in the structure of the word

The study of changes in both the formal and content side of individual morphemes,

The study of the composition of grammatical categories and grammatical meanings in the history of the language.

Syntax(from Greek sýntaxis - construction, order) - a branch of linguistics that studies the processes of generation and the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the doctrine of the phrase and the doctrine of the sentence. In a number of works, syntax, which studies the semantic side of speech, is opposed to phonetics and morphology, which are mostly concerned with the plan of expression of a language system.

Subject descriptive syntax are the following problems:

Functioning in speech of various lexical and grammatical classes of words;

Compatibility and sequence of words when they are included in larger syntactic units;

Definition and consideration of different types of syntactic connection;

General properties and grammatical features of phrases and sentences;

Internal structure of syntactic units;

Classification of syntactic units of the language;

The changes that a sentence undergoes when it is incorporated into a larger unit of speech - into text, i.e. rules for adapting the sentence to the context and to the speech situation;

Syntactic typology.

Historical Syntax deals with the study of the general patterns of development of individual syntactic units and changes relating to the entire syntactic structure of the language.

Punctuation(cf. lat. punctuatio from lat. punctum - point) - a branch of linguistics that studies and describes the system of punctuation marks and the rules for their staging in written speech.

In the history of Russian punctuation, there are three main approaches to understanding its foundations and purpose - logical (or semantic), syntactic and intonation. Theorists logical directions were F.I. Buslaev, A.B. Shapiro and others, proceeding from the position that for greater clarity in the presentation of thoughts in writing, it is customary to separate words and whole sentences with punctuation marks, that is, stop signs. syntactic the direction of the theory of Russian punctuation, which goes back primarily to the works of J.K. Grot, has become widespread in teaching practice. Its representatives proceed from the fact that punctuation marks are primarily designed to make the syntactic structure of speech visual, to highlight individual sentences and their parts. The representatives intonation theories (L.V. Shcherba, A.M. Peshkovsky and others) believe that punctuation marks are intended to indicate the rhythm and melody of a phrase, the pace of speech, pauses, etc., i.e. what intonation does in spoken language, punctuation does in written speech.

Language- a naturally developing sign system that serves as the main means of communication between people.

Each linguistic sign (like any other sign of a semiotic system) has a conceptual content (meaning) and a formal expression (sound). Thus, on the one hand, the language reflects a set of concepts, ideas about the world, characteristic of the language community, divides the surrounding reality and represents it by means of language. In the system of meanings expressed by it, the language captures the experience of the entire collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. On the other hand, language is realized, materially embodied in sounding speech. With the advent of writing, the language receives a new means of material expression - written texts. It is only thanks to the presence of spoken speech and written texts that we can form an idea of ​​the internal organization of language, of a language system that is not given to us in direct observation.

Language is an organized, strictly ordered, multi-level system, all elements of which are interconnected and interdependent. Each level of the language structure is characterized by an independent language unit that performs a special function in the language. Traditionally, linguistic units include a phoneme, a morpheme, a word, and a sentence.

A language is a fairly stable system in which a change in a single language unit inevitably entails a change in the entire language system as a whole. A rapid change in the language would not allow it to perform a communicative function, to serve as a means of communication between people. However, the language is constantly changing its sound structure, lexical composition, even grammatical categories and syntactic constructions. The most sensitive to various changes are sounds and words, the grammar of the language is more stable, its significant change leads to a change in the language type. The sound and meaning of a word can change significantly over a short period of time. For example, the word a fish, in addition to the main meaning, it can acquire new meanings, various shades, being used in a new context that is not characteristic of it: calling a person fish, we point to his emotional coldness, restraint, lethargy.

Possessing internal integrity and unity, language at the same time is a multifunctional system. The main function of language is to serve as a means of human communication, in addition, language is a socially significant form of reflection of the surrounding reality, as well as a means of obtaining new information about the world.

Language is a social phenomenon, it belongs to the whole society as a whole, and not to an individual. It is customary to distinguish between several forms of the existence of language in society:

. idiolect- the individual language of a particular person;

. dialect- a set of close idiolects, which are characterized by internal unity and are united on the basis of a territorial sign;

. language- this is, as a rule, a set of dialects that may differ from each other to one degree or another. The principle of combining different dialects into a single language depends not only on the actual linguistic (structural), but also on social parameters (linguistic self-awareness of speakers, the presence of a single script, the social prestige of dialects, etc.).

The highest form of existence of the language is the literary language, which is characterized by the creation of a norm and the presence of a fairly wide range of functional styles.

Literary language- one of the main forms of existence of the language, which is characterized by consistent codification (establishment of the norm), conscious cultivation of the norm, binding norms for all speakers and high social prestige.

Literary language serves various communicative spheres, serves to express very different content and solve many communicative tasks. The literary language is used in the field of public administration, journalism, science, literature, as well as in oral presentations and in some forms of colloquial speech. In a situation of easy communication, there are elements of a conversational style that do not violate the norms of the literary language.

Literary language is a bookish language associated with literacy, with a special, bookish norm. It is based on an artificial norm and is opposed to a living spoken language. Any norm is associated with learning, it is taught, imposed on the individual by society. Assimilation of the norm demonstrates belonging to a particular society, it is a sign of society.

The structure of the literary language depends on the composition of the functional styles included in it (official business, ecclesiastical, scientific, newspaper and journalistic, etc.). During the period of formation and strengthening of statehood, it becomes necessary to form an official business style, and as scientific knowledge accumulates and develops, a scientific style, etc. There are special language tools that serve different communicative spheres. In order for all members of society to equally understand the language (for example, official documents), there is a consolidation, standardization of language means. There is a strict, official version of the literary language, serving the official business and scientific sphere.

The formation of a literary language is a national and historical phenomenon. The main processes of the formation of the literary language are associated with the development of culture, with the history of society. The features of the formation of the national literary language depend on the sample texts that the literary language is guided by in its development.

For example, the functions of the Russian literary language until the 18th century were performed by the Church Slavonic language. After the reforms of Peter the Great, the Russian literary language began to move closer to popular colloquial speech. However, the centuries-old orientation towards the Church Slavonic book and written culture determined many of the characteristic features of the Russian literary language.

Thus, the literary language is a normalized, bookish language, directly related to cultural tradition, designed to fit linguistic activity into the general plan of cultural, that is, socially valuable behavior.

Dialects(from the Greek. diálektos - conversation, dialect, dialect) - varieties of the national language, opposed to the literary language, serving as a means of communication in speech groups, allocated on a geographical (territorial) basis. A territorial dialect is a means of communication for the population of a historically established region, characterized by specific ethnographic features.

Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, in connection with the change in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects take place. Sometimes, on the border of two related languages, it is extremely difficult to determine the belonging of local dialects to one or another language. The decisive factor here is ethnic: when referring a dialect to a particular language, the self-consciousness of the speakers of the dialect is taken into account.

Dialects are characterized by phonetic, lexical, syntactic features that are revealed when comparing dialects with each other, as well as with the literary language. For example, a bright dialectal feature - clatter (two affricates [ts] and [h '] of the literary language do not differ, pronounced as [ts]) - characterizes the Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Pskov and some other dialects. Some dialects of the Oryol, Kursk, Tambov and Bryansk regions tend to pronounce [s] instead of the affricate [ts]: Kurisa on the street yaiso demolished. Another teaser marks the choking (the affricates [ts] and [h’] are pronounced like [h’]): Sheep ran past our porch.

Dialect differences can be small, so that speakers of different dialects can easily understand each other, or they can be quite significant.

Under the influence of the literary language, dialects lose their most significant differences from it, unify, lose their independence, partially enriching the literary language with some of their features.

Speech- the process of speaking, taking place in time, carried out in sound or written form.

Speech is usually characterized by contrasting it with language (as private versus general). Speech is understood as a material embodiment, the use of a language system in the process of communication. Speech is concrete and unique, as opposed to abstract and reproducible language. Speech is subjective, since it is a kind of free creative activity of the individual. Speech always has an author who expresses his thoughts and emotions. Individual character is the most important feature of speech. Speech behavior is an essential characteristic of a person.

Speech is material, it consists of articulated signs perceived by the senses (hearing, sight). Oral speech is characterized by tempo, duration, timbre features, degree of loudness, articulatory clarity, accent, etc.

Speech is variable, allows elements of disordered and random. Speech can be characterized through an indication of the psychological state of the speaker, his attitude to the interlocutor, to the subject of the message.

Speech is linear: it unfolds in time and is realized in space. Speech is contextually and situationally conditioned.

The result of speech is text. It is one or more sentences related to each other, arranged in a certain sequence and united into a single whole by a common theme. Different semantic relationships are established between sentences in the text: opposition, explanation, purpose, condition. To connect sentences in the text, special syntactic means can be used: parallelism (several sentences have the same structure in terms of the order of sentence members), ellipsis (omission of a text element that can be restored in a given context), etc.

Speech as one of the forms of human activity is of interest not only to philologists, but also to philosophers, psychologists, speech therapists, sociologists, specialists in the theory of communication and information. The role of speech in the formation of consciousness and manifestations of the subconscious is studied, the processes of development of children's speech, the mechanisms of speech formation, the occurrence of speech errors and various speech disorders are studied.

Thus, speech is the realization of a language, which only through it can fulfill its main function - to serve as a means of communication between people.

Speech styles(from Latin stilus, stylus - a pointed stick for writing, writing style) - systems of linguistic means within the literary language, delimited by the conditions and tasks of communication.

Usually, five styles of speech are distinguished: four bookish - scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic - and colloquial style. Sometimes different styles of the literary language can differ significantly from each other, but in some languages ​​they turn out to be quite homogeneous: stylistic differences have not yet been developed and consolidated. The depth and certainty of the stylistic differentiation of envy from the "age" of the language.

Each style is characterized by certain linguistic means: special words, special combinations of words (formulas, clichés), word forms, features of syntactic constructions, etc. Speech styles are implemented in certain forms, or types of texts, called speech genres.

scientific style- one of the book styles that is used in scientific works, textbooks, oral presentations on scientific topics (lectures, reports at conferences, etc.). In addition, the scientific style can be used in popular science works, the purpose of which is to acquaint a wide audience with curious scientific facts and theories.

The scientific style is used in a formal setting, characterized by logic, consistency, objectivity. The task of the scientific style is to communicate information, to explain a scientific theory by providing a system of evidence.

The scientific style is characterized by the indispensable use of appropriate scientific terminology. The term, in contrast to the word of the common language, accurately and quite fully reflects the scientific concept. In scientific texts, there are usually no means of figurative and emotional presentation, exclamatory and interrogative sentences, hints, appeals, etc. If a rhetorical question is used in a scientific speech, then an immediate reaction from the audience is hardly expected. As a rule, the author himself is going to answer this question in the course of further presentation of the material.

The scientific style is characterized by the use of complex syntactic constructions, participial and adverbial phrases. Frequent citations and references to other scientific works are also a striking feature of the scientific style.

In scientific papers, it is very important to structure the text, consistently present the theory, presenting all the necessary evidence, and draw a reasonable conclusion, so the texts use various pointers to the sequence of presentation, cause-and-effect relationships: firstly, therefore, so, let us now turn to ... etc.

In addition, special linguistic means used in scientific texts help to perceive the author's scientific research as quite objective, removing the pronounced authorial principle. For example, in scientific speech, personal pronouns of the first and second person are almost never used, but constructions without a subject are often used (such as It is known that…). Impersonal constructions also create the effect of the author's detachment, the ability to refer to previous studies. The scientific style is characterized by the use of stamps, standard turns that organize the course of scientific reasoning.

Formal business style- one of the book styles that serves the scope of business relations. This style is typical for business papers: laws, documents, resolutions, orders, protocols, etc.

The task of the official business style is to regulate business relations: convey information, orders, issue instructions, conclusions, etc. The official business style is characterized by accuracy, unambiguity, standardization and the obligation to build a text according to a model. Often, when drawing up a document, such a sample is attached, sometimes special forms are prepared for writing official papers. Thus, the main feature of an official document is a standard form, thanks to which it is easy to find the necessary information in the document: to whom the paper is addressed, from whom it is, from what date, what exactly is stated in the document.

In order for what is written to be accepted as an official document, it is necessary to follow strict rules for formatting the text, including the standard set of language tools. When compiling a document, it is necessary to put down the exact date, indicate the full surname, name and patronymic (often passport data) of the persons who appear in the official document.

For an official business style, the use of standard turns is typical - clichés: please provide, after the deadline, in the prescribed manner etc. Elements of colloquial style, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, familiar address are inappropriate in the document.

In the language of the document, personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person are almost not used, which also makes the language of the document official, official. The business style does not allow the author to express his emotions, personal point of view on the issue. The syntax of the document is distinguished by a large number of subordinate clauses, heavy and intricate constructions, unnatural in colloquial speech.

Journalistic style- one of the book styles that is used in social and journalistic activities, in the media, in newspapers, in a situation of public speaking.

The task of this style is to influence the mass consciousness, the desire to impose on the audience their vision of the situation. The characteristic features of the journalistic style are figurativeness, emotionality, appraisal, appeal. In public speeches, various means of artistic expression are often used: epithets, hyperbole, comparisons, metaphors, "winged expressions". Elements of a language game, puns, appeals to the audience, appeals, interrogative and exclamatory sentences, rhetorical questions are also used. In the speech of the speaker, always emotionally colored, tense, a personal assessment of the situation sounds, therefore, first-person pronouns of both numbers are often used as linguistic means.

Thus, in the journalistic style, linguistic means are used that allow you to influence the emotional state of the audience, form the audience's attitude to individual events and to the world as a whole.

Art style - functional style of speech, which is used in works of fiction and refers to book styles.

The task of this style is to draw an artistic image, to express the author's attitude to the depicted, to influence the feelings and imagination of the reader. The language here performs not so much a communicative as an aesthetic function, it forms a special figurative world using special expressive means. These include trails(metaphors, metonymy, epithets, hyperboles, litotes, comparisons, etc.) and figures of speech(anaphora, gradation, inversion, rhetorical question, parallelism, etc.).

For example, metaphor is a means of artistic expression, when using which the name of one object is used to name another on the basis of similarity. : The garden is burning red rowan bonfire (S.A. Yesenin). Or litote - a figurative expression, consisting in underestimating the size of an object or the significance of the depicted phenomenon: Your spitz, lovely spitz, no more thimble (A.S. Griboedov) and others.

In a poetic work, the means of rhythmic organization of the text are used - rhythm and rhymes.

A storm covers the sky with mist,

Whirlwinds of snow twisting,

Like a beast, she will howl

It will cry like a child.

That on a dilapidated roof

Suddenly the straw will rustle,

Like a belated traveler

It will knock on our window(A.S. Pushkin).

In the language of fiction, in addition to the artistic style, elements of other styles, mostly colloquial, can be used. The use of colloquial speech does not violate the norms of the literary language (unlike vernacular, which is outside the literary norm). In a work of art, colloquial speech is “literaryized”, the elements of colloquial style - expressive, expressive - against the background of neutral and bookish means of the literary language are marked as elements of a reduced stylistic coloring. In the speech of the characters, clericalisms, occasionalisms, dialect words and even profanity are possible. The purpose of this deliberate violation of the norms of the literary language is mainly the speech characteristics of the characters.

Conversational style- functional style of speech, which is opposed to book styles and is used in a situation of casual conversation, more often in an informal setting. The main form of existence is oral, but the colloquial style can also be implemented in writing (notes, private letters, fixing the speech of characters, etc.).

Conversational style characterizes the usual, relaxed oral speech of people who speak a literary language. The task of colloquial speech is communication, exchange of news, opinions and impressions of loved ones in an informal setting.

The general properties of conversational style are manifested in the specific characteristics of colloquial speech: informality, unpreparedness, spontaneity, linear character, leading to both economy and redundancy of speech means. With an accelerated rate of speech, phenomena of increased reduction of unstressed vowels, simplification of consonant groups are observed.

The speech uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, first person pronouns, particles, interjections and appeals. The speaker seeks to express his personal opinion, to make speech figurative, lively.

In colloquial speech, participial and adverbial phrases, complex syntactic constructions are rarely found. The technique of dismembering the syntactic whole is often observed, interrupted structures, repetitions, contractions, and union-free composition are used. The conversational style is characterized by a free word order, which is associated with the possibility of logical selection of words by intonation.

The colloquial style differs sharply from the book style in the rules for the arrangement of words and parts of a sentence. The words of one phrase in colloquial speech can be separated by other words: Need to today of bread buy fresh . It happens that the members of the main and subordinate clauses are intertwined with each other: You doctor saw, when he came? etc.

Genres of speech- a set of texts united by the same use of stylistic means of the language. A group of speech genres is combined into a certain functional style.

The scientific style has the following speech genres: article, monograph, textbook, abstract, abstract, review, lecture, scientific report, etc.

The speech genres of the official business style include: law, decree, protocol of interrogation, certificate, statement, order, etc.

In the journalistic style, such speech genres as an article, interview, essay, reportage, etc.

The genres of artistic style are novel, short story, poem, poem, etc.

The speech genres of colloquial speech include story, dialogue, family conversation, etc.

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Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

Muallif: R. Nabiyeva

Yaratilgan : Angren, 2005 yil

Category: Linguistics

Bolim: Terminology

university: Toshkent viloyati davlat pedagogy institute

faculty: Horizhiy tillar

department: Uzbekistonda Democrat Jamiyat Kurish Nazariyasi va Amalieti Hamda Falsafa

Elektron fail tour: RAR

A brief dictionary of linguistic terms is addressed to students of philology of the Russian - Tajik department of pedagogical universities; it is compiled on the basis of many years of teaching activity of the authors.

The advantage of this dictionary is its emphasis on the most commonly used terms that reflect the problems of the entire course. Many dictionary entries not only provide references to the source language, but also reveal the main features of the phenomena denoted by a particular term, illustrated by appropriate examples.

The methodological manual contributes to the most effective assimilation of educational material by students, the expansion of the linguistic and general educational horizons of the future teacher of literature

Preface

The "Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" is compiled as an educational and teaching dictionary, which is necessary in a student audience with Russian-Tajik languages ​​of instruction. It is intended for students studying in the specialties "Foreign Languages", "Russian Language and Literature", "Native Language and Literature".

About building a dictionary.

1. 
   The dictionary covers only the most commonly used terms of the disciplines of the general linguistic cycle.
2. 
   Words - terms are arranged in alphabetical order.
3. 
   Each term, together with the material related to it, forms a dictionary entry.

Dictionary entries are not only brief definitions of linguistic terms, but also a fairly detailed interpretation of them with illustrations from trusted sources.

It is well known that the compilation of such dictionaries is a difficult and painstaking task, therefore, some omissions are possible in the proposed dictionary.

Abbreviation- a compound abbreviated word made up of the initial elements: department store, university, UN.

Agglutination- mechanical attachment of standard unambiguous affixes to invariable stems or roots: bola - bolalar - bolalar ha; id(ti) – id And- go those .

Accommodation- partial adaptation of articulations of adjacent consonant and vowel sounds: carried [n'os], row [r'at], what, was.

Active vocabulary- part of the vocabulary of the language, actively using in all spheres of society.

Allomoforms- identical in meaning variant of the morpheme, this particular manifestation of the phoneme: friend - friend - friend -; English [-z], [-s], [-iz]- as indicators of the plural of nouns.

Allophones- a group of sounds in which a given phoneme is realized, a specific manifestation of a phoneme: she caught a catfish herself [sma pimal sma].

Altai family- a macrofamily of languages ​​that unites, on the basis of the alleged genetic coexistence, the Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchurian groups of languages ​​and the isolated Korean and Japanese languages.

alphabet letters- a trophic system in which a separate sign conveys a separate sound.

Amorphous languages- isolating languages, which are characterized by the absence of forms of inflection and form formation, root languages; these include the languages ​​of the Sino-Tibetan family: gao shan - "high mountains", shan gao "high mountains", hao ren - "a good person", ren hao - "a person loves me", xiu hao - "do good", hao dagwih - "very expensive".

Analytic form of the word- a complex form of a word formed by a combination of an official and a significant word: stronger, the best.

Analogy- the process of assimilation of some elements of the language to others related to it, but more widespread and productive.

Antonyms- words belonging to the same part of speech, having opposite, but correlative meanings with each other: young - old, day - night.

Argo(French Argot. "jargon") - the secret language of a socially limited group of the population that opposes itself to other people: thieves' slang, student slang, school slang.

Argotisms- words that are socially limited in their use, being emotionally expressive equivalents of stylistically neutral words of the literary language: cut off - “do not pass the exam”, tail - “failed exam”, memorize - “learn”.

Archaisms- outdated name of existing realities; obsolete words replaced in modern language by synonyms: catch - "hunt", bosom - "chest", neck - "neck".

Assimilation- likening sounds to each other within a word or phrase: bone - bones [bones], little book - book [knishk], high - highest [high], deceit - [mman].

affixes- service morphemes that modify the meaning of the root or express the relationship between words in a phrase and sentence.

Affixation- 1. creation of a new word by attaching certain affixes to the generating base (or word); 2. a way of expressing grammatical meanings with the help of affixes.

Affiliating languages- languages ​​in the grammatical structure of which affixes play an important role.

affixoid- affixes that occupy an intermediate position between root and service morphemes, by origin go to independent roots and words: linguistics, literary criticism, geography, airlines, airmail.

affricates- (lat. Affricata "lapped") sounds in which the bow opens gradually, while the gap phase follows the bow: [h], [y].

B

Lateral consonants- (lateral) sounds formed by the passage of air along the sides of the bow of the tip of the tongue with teeth or alveoli, as well as the middle part of the tongue with a hard palate: [l], [l '].

IN

Morpheme Valency- the ability of a morpheme to combine with other morphemes. Multivalent (multivalent) and univalent (univalent ): for verbs, but groom, glass beads, popadya.

Options- 1. phonemes in a weak position, positions of indistinguishability: shaft - ox, but [vly]. 2. word forms that differ in external form, but have the same grammatical meaning: waters Oh- water oyu .

Variations- shades of the phoneme in a strong position in terms of positional conditioning: five [p'at '], knead [m'at '].

Explosive consonants- sounds in which the bow formed by the lips, tongue and palate, tongue and teeth, opens instantly: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].

internal flexion- a way of expressing grammatical meanings, consisting in the sound change of the root: English foot- leg, feet "legs", lock - lock, die - die.

Internal word form- semantic and structural motivation of the word by another word, on the basis of which it arose: fly agaric, blueberry, boletus, five hundred, forester, shoemaker.

Excerpt- finding the organs of speech at the time of sound production, the articulatory phase after the excursion, but preceding the recursion.

Haplology- simplification of the syllabic structure of a word due to the loss of one of two identical syllables immediately following one another: military commander vm . military leader, banner-bearer vm . standard-bearer, mineralogy vm. mineralogy.

Genealogical classification of languages- classification of languages ​​based on linguistic affinity: Indo-European, Turkic, Semitic and other languages.

Geographic classification– determination of the area of ​​a language (or dialect) taking into account the boundaries of its linguistic features.

Verb- a significant part of speech, combining in its composition words denoting an action or state.

Vowels- speech sounds consisting only of voice: [and], [y], [e], [o], [a].

dialect- a set of idiolects characteristic of a territorially limited group of people.

Grammar category- a set of homogeneous grammatical forms opposed to each other: the category of the species is the opposition (opposition) of the imperfect species to the perfect one; the category of number is the opposition of singular and plural.

Grammatical form- material form of expression of grammatical meaning.

grammatical meaning- abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit that has a regular expression in the language; "This is an abstraction of features and relationships" (A.A. Reformatsky).

grammeme- unit of grammatical meaning.

grammar field- association of words based on common grammatical meaning: the field of time, the field of modality, the field of pledge.

Two-part sentences- a two-term syntactic complex in which two main members (subject and predicate) or a group of the subject and a group of the predicate are formally expressed.

The delimitative function of the phoneme- (lat. limities "border, line") the function of denoting the boundary between two consecutive units (morphemes, words).

Denotation- an object or phenomenon of extralinguistic reality, which must be called by some word.

Denotative meaning of the word- the ratio of a phonetic word to a specific designated object, the object of speech.

Deetymologization- the process of losing the internal form, when a previously motivated word becomes unmotivated: story

Dialect- a set of dialects united by intrastructural linguistic unity.

Dialectisms- words belonging to the dialects of a particular language.

diachrony- the dynamics of the language, the development of the language in time, the study of the language in the process of development.

Dissimilation- articulatory distribution of sounds: ice hole.

Distant sound changes- a change in sounds that are at some distance from each other.

Disreza- throwing out an unpronounceable sound from a word: heart [with "erts], reed [trsn" ik].

Addition- a minor member of the sentence, expressing the objective meaning: read a book satisfied with success.

Trembling consonants- vibrants: [p], [p "].

Back lingual consonants- sounds formed by the convergence of the back of the tongue with the soft palate: [k], [g], [x].

The law of ascending sonority- the arrangement of sounds in the composition of the syllable from the least sonorous to the most sonorous: in-yes, good-bro, co-style.

Laws of language development- internal laws of language development: the law of an open syllable, the law of economy of speech efforts (blueberries, the law of stunning final voiced consonants, the law of outgoing sonority.

Closed syllable- a syllable ending in a non-syllable sound:

cliff, wolf.

Voiced consonants- sounds, during the articulation of which the vocal cords are tense and are in a state of oscillation.

The sound of speech- the minimum unit of the speech chain as a result of articulation.

Significant words- words that have an independent lexical meaning, able to function as members of a sentence, structurally designed, having their own stress : motherland, capital, first, calmly.

Meaning of affixes- derivational (word-forming) and relational (word-changing): boot > shoemaker > shoemaker - a, shoe-nick-y.

Meaning of the word- a product of human mental activity, expressing the relation of the fact of language to the extralinguistic fact, the relation of the word to the designated object.

Indo-European family- one of the largest and most studied families of Eurasian languages.

Interfix- an auxiliary morpheme, standing between the bases of a compound word or between roots and a suffix, serving to connect them into a single whole: house-o-build.

Intonation- a set of rhythmic-melodic components of speech, serving as a means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring of the utterance.

historicisms- obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of objects or phenomena of objective reality: boyar, steward, altyn.

Historical alternation of sounds- alternation, not due to the phonetic position from the point of view of the modern phonetic system of the given language: spirit / soul, cart / drive.

Qualitative reduction- weakened pronunciation of a sound in a weak position due to a reduction in its duration : locomotive [parvos].

Cyrillic- the Slavic alphabet, created by the Slavic first teachers Cyril (Konstantin) and his brother Methodius.

Morpheme classification- highlighting them in the composition of the word in place, function, degree of reproducibility.

Language classification- distribution of languages ​​into groups based on certain characteristics in accordance with the principles underlying the study: genealogical (genetic), typological (morphological), geographical (areal).

Book vocabulary- words, stylistically limited, belonging to book styles of speech.

Koine- a language that serves as a means of inter-dialect communication, which arose on the basis of one common dialect: Ancient Greek Koine (Attic dialect), Old Russian Koine (Polyan dialect).

quantitative reduction- reduction of the duration of the sound depending on its position in relation to the stress. Hand-hand-mitten [hand], [hand], [mitten].

Combinatorial changes of sounds- phonetic processes due to the interaction of sounds in the speech stream: assimilation, dissimilation, accommodation, haplology, diaeresis, prosthesis, epenthesis, metathesis.

Communicative units of language- sentences that communicate about something, expressing and shaping thoughts, feelings, expression of will, carrying out communication between people.

Conversion- morphological and syntactic way of forming words by moving from one part of speech to another: substantiation, adjectivation, adverbialization, pronominalization.

Contact sound changes- interaction of adjacent sounds : fairy tale - [sk].

Root- a morpheme of the common part of related words, expressing and predetermining the lexical meaning of the word.

Correlation- correspondence of phonemes in place and method of formation and their opposition in one DP (deafness-voicedness, hardness-softness ): , .

Criteria for distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy- 1. polysemy has a common seme, homonymy does not; 2. homonymy is characterized by a divergence of word-formation series; 3. homonymy is characterized by different compatibility; 4. homonymy is characterized by the absence of synonymous relations.

Labialized vowels- rounded, during the formation of which the lips approach each other, reducing the outlet opening and lengthening the oral resonator.

lexeme- a unit of the content plan, the sound shell of the word, is opposed to the sememe - its content.

Lexicology- a branch of the science of language that studies the word and vocabulary of the language as a whole.

Lexico-semantic group- a set of words of one part of speech with intralinguistic connections based on interdependent and interrelated elements of meaning related to one part of speech of LSG words with the meaning of time or space.

Lexico-semantic system- a set of linguistic elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity.

Lexico-syntactic way of word formation- creation of a new word by merging into one unit of a combination of words: that hour > immediately, this day > today.

Lincos (
Literary language- the highest supra-dialect form of the language, normalized and having a wide range of functional styles.

logical stress- transfer of stress from the last in the syntagma to any other in order to enhance the semantic load : I today I will go home; weather lovely.

Melody of speech- the main component of intonation, carried out by raising and lowering the voice in the phrase, organizes the phrase, dividing it into syntagmas and rhythmic groups, linking its parts.

Pronoun- part of speech indicating an object, sign, quantity, but not naming them; substitution words forming a parallel system.

Metathesis- permutation of sounds or syllables in the word: cheesecake
Metaphor- figurative meaning based on similarity in a variety of ways: color, shape, quality: silver frost, golden man, wave crest.

Metonymy- figurative meaning based on spatial or temporal contiguity: " No. She silver- on the gold ate". A.S. Griboedov. "Read willingly Apuleia, but Cicero did not read. "A.S. Pushkin.

Polysemy of a word(or polysemy) - the presence of several interconnected meanings in the same word: OS field: 1. treeless plain; 2. cultivated land for crops; 3. large playground; 4. a clean line along the edge of a sheet in a book.

morph- the limiting unit, distinguished at the morphemic level, but not possessing the property of regular reproducibility: currant -, small -, eng. huckle - highlighted in the words currant, raspberry, huckleberry.

Morpheme- the minimum meaningful part of a word that is not divided into smaller units of the same level : green - oval - th, yellow - oval - th.

Morpheme operation- 1. suprasegmental morpheme: stress: pour - pour, legs - legs; 2. meaningful alternation : torn - tear, naked - naked; 3. suppletivism: the formation of grammatical forms from different bases: child - children, take - take, man - people.

Morphological grammatical categories- expressions of grammatical meanings by lexico-grammatical classes - significant parts of speech: CC of aspect, voice, tense, mood (verb), CC of gender, number, case (name).

Morphological way of word formation- creation of new words by combining morphemes according to the rules existing in the language: young - awn, son - approx.

Morphology- a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical properties of words, their inflection (paradigmatics of words), as well as ways of expressing abstract grammatical meanings, develops a doctrine of parts of speech.

Morphonology- a branch of linguistics that studies the phoneme as an element in the construction of a morpheme, the connection between phonology and morphology.

Moscow phonological school - determines the phoneme based on the morpheme; phoneme - a structural component of a morpheme, the identity of the morpheme determines the boundaries and volume of the phoneme: forests and fox, catfish and sama, where unstressed vowels, despite the identity of their sound, represent different phonemes.

word motivation- semantic and structural motivation by another word, on the basis of which it arose: fly agaric, blueberry, boletus, twenty.

Soft consonants(or palatal) - sounds, during the formation of which there is an additional rise in the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate and the movement of the entire mass of the tongue forward : [b"], [c"], [d"], [t"], [l"], [r"], [n"], [m"].

Adverb- a lexical and grammatical class of unchangeable words denoting a sign of a feature, action or object: very good man, run fast, eggs soft-boiled.

Folk etymology- arbitrary interpretation of the etymon of the word due to sound coincidences, false associations: gulvar vm. boulevard, melkoscope vm. microscope.

Neutral vocabulary- words emotionally neutral, expressively uncolored: water, earth, summer, wind, thunderstorm, distant, play, run.

Unlabialized vowels- unrounded vowels formed without the participation of the work of the lips: [and], [e], [a], [s].

Neologisms- new words denoting a new reality (object or concept), which have appeared in the language recently, retaining a shade of freshness and unusualness, which are included in the passive vocabulary : sponsor, video clip, fax, voucher, computer, display.

fixed accent- constant stress, tied to the same morpheme of different word forms of the word : book, book, book.

Non-positional interleaving- alternations not determined by the phonetic position of the sound in the word (historical alternations): drives - driving [d "/td"], face - face - face.

Nominative units- language units (words, phrases) that serve to designate objects, concepts, ideas.

Norm- the traditionally established system of rules for the use of language means, which are recognized by society as mandatory.

Nasal vowels- sounds, during the formation of which the soft palate is lowered, the air passes into the nasal cavity: nasal vowels in Polish, Portuguese, French.

Nasal consonants- sounds, during the formation of which the soft palate is lowered and opens the passage of air into the nasal cavity: [m], [m "], [n], [n"].

Zero morpheme- a morpheme that is not materially expressed, but has a grammatical meaning : house - Oh, to the house - a, house - y, carried - Oh, but carried - l - a, carried - l - and. Revealed in paradigms by opposition, positively expressed morphemes.

Circumstance- a secondary member of the sentence, extending and explaining the members of the sentence with the meaning of the action or feature, or the sentence as a whole, and indicating where, when, under what circumstances the action is performed, indicating the condition, reason, purpose of its implementation, as well as the measure, degree and way of showing it: stay too long until late.

General subject relatedness- the relation of the concept of a word to a whole class of denotations that have common features: table denotes any table, regardless of the number of legs, material, purpose.

General linguistics- study of the general laws of organization, development and functioning of languages.

Common vocabulary- words known and used by all native speakers, regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle.

One-part sentences- one-component sentences that have a gradation depending on whether the main member of the sentence belongs to one or another part of speech: verbal (impersonal, infinitive, definitely personal, indefinitely personal, generalized personal) and subjective (nominative).

Occasionalisms- words created by authors for certain stylistic purposes lose their expressiveness out of contexts and are incomprehensible to a native speaker: kyukhelbekerno, ogoncharovan, melancholy (Pushkin); hulk, multipath, hammery, sickle (Mayakovsky).

homographs words that have the same spelling but have different sounds and meanings: road - road, already - already, flour - flour, castle - castle.

homonymy- sound coincidence of units of different meanings : key "spring" and key "tool", marriage "flaw" and marriage "marriage".

omafins words that sound the same but have different spellings : fruit - raft, code - cat.

homoforms- partial homonyms, coinciding only in a number of grammatical forms: fist "clenched hand" and a fist "wealthy peasant" there is no coincidence in the form of wines. p. units and many others. numbers.

Definition- a minor member of the sentence, extending and explaining any member of the sentence with subjective meaning and denoting a feature, quality or property of the subject: earth strap, loose shirt.

stem- part of the word form that remains if the ending and the formative affix are taken away from it, and with which the lexical meaning of this word is associated: cows-a, milk-o.

Basic lexical meaning- the meaning directly related to the reflection of the phenomena of objective reality, this is the primary, stylistically neutral meaning of the word : book, notebook.

Basic units of the grammatical structure of the language is a morpheme, word, phrase, sentence.

open syllable- syllables ending in a syllabic sound: ma-ma, mo-lo-ko.

Negative sentences- proposals in which the content of the proposal is affirmed as unrealistic.

Paradigm- 1. a set of grammatical forms of the word: House- im.p., Houses- r.p., home- date. etc. 2. set of invariants and variants of language units in paradigmatic relations.

Paronyms- consonant single-root words belonging to the same part of speech, having structural similarities, but differing in their meaning: present - provide, adviser - adviser, put on (hat) - dress (child).

Passive vocabulary- words that have gone out of use or are going out of use, but for the most part understandable to a native speaker, archaisms and historicisms : arshin, broadcast, kiss, verb, boyar, steward, altyn, etc.

Front lingual consonants- sounds, in the formation of which the front part and the tip of the tongue work : [t], [d], [l], [r] and etc.

Transitivity of parts of speech- the transition of words from one part of speech to another due to conversion: canteen, worker, students, workers(substantivation), summer, evening, morning(adverbialization), etc. .

Perceptual function of the phoneme- the function of bringing the sounds of speech to perception, it makes it possible to perceive and identify the sounds of speech and their combinations with the organ of hearing, contributing to the identification of the same words and morphemes: breast[sad "t"] and milk mushrooms[load "d" and] identification of the root due to the perceptive function and the generality of the meaning.

Petersburg (Leningrad) phonological school- determines the phoneme on the basis of the phonetic criterion of identity according to the physiological and acoustic characteristics: in words grass And Houses for both words in the first pre-stressed syllable, a phoneme is distinguished , but in words pond And rod in word end position phoneme .

Movable stress- stress that can move in different word forms of the same word, it is not tied to one morpheme : water, water, water etc.

Subject- the main member of the sentence, indicating the logical subject to which the predicate belongs: The sun hid behind the mountain.

Vowel rise- the degree of elevation of the tongue, the degree of its vertical displacement: lower lift, middle lift, upper lift [but]- lower under., [e], [o],- cf. under., [and], [s], [y]- top rise.

Positional changes in sounds- changes in sounds due to their position in the word, which leads to reduction: cow - [krv], gardens, but garden - [sat].

Positional alternations of sounds- alternations due to phonetic position, phonetic laws operating in the language: water - water alternation [o / ], oaks - oak - [b / n].

Position- the condition for the implementation of the phoneme in speech, its position in the word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole: a strong position when the phoneme reveals its differential features. For vowels, this is the position under stress: arch, hand, for consonants before all vowels: tom - house, before sonorants : splash - shine etc.

Polysemy or polysemy of a word- the presence of the same word of several interconnected meanings: board "construction material", board "class equipment" etc.

Polysynthetic languages- languages ​​in which, within the same word, different affixes can convey a whole range of grammatical meanings: Chukchi myt - cupre - gyn - rit - yr - kyn, "we save the nets."

Complete offers- sentences that have all the structurally necessary members (subject and predicate): Cloudy riverbanks.

Full homonyms- coincidence of members of the homonymous series in all grammatical forms: beam "crossbar" and beam "ravine".

Full synonyms (or absolute)- synonyms that completely coincide in their meanings and use, or differ in slight shades: linguistics - linguistics, cold - frost, headless - brainless.

concept- this is a thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality by fixing their properties and relationships.

Postfix- a morpheme standing behind inflection, serving to form new words (someone, anything) or new word forms ( let's go, go).

parent language- the language is the basis of the historical community of related languages: the Proto-Indo-European language, the Proto-Slavic language, the Proto-Iranian language, etc.

Sentence- a syntactic construction representing a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word) that has semantic and intonational completeness.

Prefix- the morpheme before the root serves to form new words (grandfather-great-grandfather) or word forms ( amusing - amusing).

Prefixoid- an affixoid used in the function of prefixes and taking its place in the word: airlines, introspection.

word signs- uniformity or integrity, separability, free reproducibility in speech, semantic valence, non-two-stress.

Adjective- a part of speech that combines in its composition words with the meaning of an attribute (property) of an object. "There is no adjective without a noun" (L.V. Shcherba). Young month.

adjoining- a type of subordinating syntactic connection, in which the dependent word, without inflection forms, adjoins the main : go up, go down.

Progressive combinatorial changes in sounds- occur in the direction from the previous to the next under the influence of the articulation of the previous sound on the pronunciation of the next : Russian dial . Vanka, Vanka, English . dog > dogs.

Productive affix is an affix that is widely used to form new words or new word forms: suf. - Nick with the meaning "room for someone": cowshed, poultry house, pigsty.

Proclitic- these are unstressed service words adjacent to the shock ones in front: on business, in the mountains.

colloquial vocabulary- part of the national vocabulary, characterized by a specific expressive and stylistic coloring: grab, forsyth, slut and etc.

Prosthesis- the appearance of an additional sound at the absolute beginning of a word, substitution: eight eastern.

Professionalisms- words that make up the belonging of speech to a particular professional group: galley, cook, flask - in the speech of sailors; hat, basement, stripe - in the speech of journalists.

Colloquial vocabulary- words used in casual speech, in the styles of fiction and journalism to achieve artistic expressiveness: nonsense, hard worker, reader, lanky, nimble, get out, chatter, yeah, bam, well etc

Colloquial and literary vocabulary- words that do not violate the norms of literary use: window, earthling, good fellow, poor fellow, talker, which differ from neutral vocabulary by their specific expressive and stylistic coloring: neutral not true, colloquial and literary nonsense, lies, nonsense etc.

The distinctive function of the phoneme- a distinctive function, thanks to which the phoneme serves for phonetic recognition and semantic identification of words and morphemes : volume - house - catfish - com.

Regressive combinatorial changes- phonetic processes directed back to the beginning of the word, from the next to the previous : sew [shshty"], all [ "s" e "].

Reduction- change in the sound characteristics of vowels or consonants in a weak position: frost [m dew], convoy [bos].

reduplication- a way of expressing grammatical meanings as a result of doubling or repeating a root or word: rus . White - white, barely talking, arm. gund "regiment", gund-gund "shelves", Indonesian. api "Fire", api-api "matches".

recursion- the phase of articulation of sounds, when the organs of pronunciation relax and move to a neutral position or to the articulation of the next sound.

Rhythm of speech- regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short words, serves as the basis for the aesthetic organization of the artistic network - poetic and prosaic.

family tree- the principles of the genealogical classification of languages, according to which each common language (protolanguage) broke up into two or more languages, from which new languages ​​arose. So, the Proto-Slavic language gave three branches: Proto-Western Slavic, Proto-South Slavic, Orthodox-Slavic.

Language kinship- the material proximity of two or more languages, manifested in the sound similarity of language units of different levels: blg . vrana pls. wrona, rus. Crow.

Vowel series- the basis for the classification of vowel sounds in the process of shifting the tongue to the front or back of the oral cavity: front row [and, uh], middle row [and, a], back row [OU].

free stress- stress is not fixed, which can fall on any syllable of the word: milk, crow, raven, vegetables.

Associated stress- fixed stress, tied to a specific syllable in a word (in French - on the last, in Polish - on the penultimate, in Czech - on the first).

Sema- minimum limiting units of the content plan, an elementary semantic component. Yes, the word uncle includes five semes: 1. male; 2. relative; 3. precedence; 4. discrepancy in one generation; 5. lateral relationship.

Semantic trapezoid- a schematic representation of the ratio of the components of the word: the top of the trapezoid is the concept and meaning, and the base is the subject and the phonetic shell of the word.

Semantic neologism- words in which a new concept is conveyed by words already existing in the language: walrus "winter swimmer", bomber "prolific striker", truck "cargo spacecraft", disk "gramophone".

Semantic synonyms- words that shade different sides of an object or phenomenon: break - crush - crush.

Semantic triangle- a schematic representation of the components of the word: the phonetic shell of the word, the concept.

semantic field- a set of linguistic units united by a common meaning and representing the subject, conceptual or functional similarity of the designated phenomena; relationship field: father, mother, brother, son, daughter, grandfather, grandmother, aunt, uncle etc .

Semasiology- the science of the meanings of words and phrases.

Sememe- the unit of the content plan, the content of the lexeme, is opposed to the lexeme; the totality of semes forms the meaning of a word.

language family- a set of related languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat arose from one ancestor - the parent language: Indo-European, Turkic, etc.

The significative function of the phoneme- meaningful function: that one is here.

The significative meaning of the word- the relation of a word to a concept, denoted by the word concept: concept table - "kinds of furniture".

Strong position- the position of distinguishing phonemes, when it reveals the greatest number of differential features: nose, but nasal [n'svoi].

Synharmonism- uniform vocal design of the word, when the root vowel in formants corresponds to the same vowel sound: balalar, but uyler in kaz., odalar "rooms", but server "Houses" in Turkish.

Synecdoche- transfer of the name on the basis of quantity: part instead of the whole and vice versa: herd of ten.

Syncope- loss of sounds within the word: wire [provk], hustle [sutk].

Synonymic series- a set of synonyms headed by a dominant - a stylistically neutral word: idler, loafer, loafer, loafer.

Synonyms- words that are different in sound, but close in meaning, belonging to the same part of speech and having completely or partially identical meanings: fear - horror.

Syntagmatic relations in vocabulary- linear relationships between combined words as defined and defining: gold ring, child's pen etc.

Syntagmatic stress- stronger emphasis on the stressed syllable of the last word in the syntagma: the weather is terrible.

Synthetic form of the word- a word from a stem and a formative affix: carry-ty, carry-ouch-th.

Synthetic languages- languages ​​of synthetic grammatical structure, when lexical and grammatical meanings are combined within one word: desk, cards, parte etc.

Syntactic level- a section of linguistics that describes the processes of generating speech: ways to combine words into phrases and sentences.

Synchronous linguistics- descriptive linguistics, inheriting the language as a system at some point in its history: modern Russian, modern Uzbek, etc.

Language system- an internally organized set of language units that are in relationship with each other ("set" + "units" + "functions").

Predicate- the main member of the sentence, expressing the predicative sign of the subject.

Weak position- the position of indistinguishability of phonemes, when fewer differential (distinctive) features are found than in a strong position : sama [sma], soma [sma].

Word- the main structural - semantic unit of the language, which serves to name denotations, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language.

Word-forming affix- an affix that serves to form a new word: old - old age.

phrase- a syntactic construction consisting of two or more significant words connected by a subordinating relationship : new house, read a book.

word form- a two-sided unit, represented externally (a chain of phonemes, stress) and internally (the meaning of a word).

Word-forming affix- an affix that combines the functions of word formation and form formation : godfather - godfather, husband - wife.

Syllable- a segment of speech limited by sounds with the least sonority, between which there is a syllabic sound, a sound with the greatest sonority (R.I. Avanesov).

syllable section- syllable boundary marking the end of one and the beginning of another : yes.

Addition- the formation of a new word by combining two or more bases into one verbal whole : forest-o-steppe, warm-o-move.

Difficult sentence- association according to certain grammatical rules of two or more simple sentences based on grammatical connection.

Service words- lexically dependent words that serve to express various relationships between words, sentences, as well as to convey various shades of subjective assessment.

Stop consonants- sounds, during the formation of which the lips, palate, tongue and teeth close tightly and open sharply under the pressure of the air stream: [b], [d], [g], [h], [c] and etc.

Consonants- sounds, during the formation of which the exhaled air meets an obstacle in its path in the oral cavity.

Coordination- a type of subordination in which the dependent word is likened to the main one in their common grammatical forms : new dress, new house.

Social theory of the origin of language- a theory that connects the emergence of language with the development of society; language enters the social experience of mankind.

Building units of the language- phoneme, morphemes; they serve as a means of constructing and designing nominative, and through them, communicative units.

Language structure- internal organization of language units, a network of relationships between language units.

Submorph- part of the root, outwardly similar to an affix, but not having its own meaning : cap, cucumber, crown.

substrate- traces of the defeated language of the local population in the system of the language - the winner of the alien population; in Russian as a substratum of the Finno-Ugric languages.

Superstrat- traces of the defeated language of the newcomers in the language - the winner of the local population: the French superstratum in English - jury.

suppletivism- the formation of grammatical meanings from different bases: man - people, child - children, walking - walking, good - better.

Suffix- a morpheme after the root, which serves to form new words (old - old age) or new forms of the word (swim - swam).

Suffixoid- a morpheme used in the function of suffixes and occupying their position in the word: spherical, vitreous, serpentine.

Noun- a significant part of speech, combining in its composition words with a common meaning of objectivity: table, horse, life, wisdom and etc.

Essence of language- a spontaneously emerging system of articulate sound signs that serves for the purposes of communication and is able to express the totality of a person's knowledge and ideas about the world. (I.Kh. Arutyunova)

hard consonants- sounds pronounced without palatalization by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate, i.e. velarization.

When studying the Russian language at school, quite often there are linguistic terms that are not always clear to schoolchildren. We have tried to compile a short list of the most used concepts with decoding. In the future, schoolchildren can use it when studying the Russian language.

Phonetics

Linguistic terms used in the study of phonetics:

• Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of sound structure.
• Sound is the smallest particle of speech. Highlight sounds.
• A syllable is one or often several sounds pronounced on one exhalation.
• Stress is the allocation of a vowel sound in speech.

• Orthoepy is a section of phonetics that studies the norms of pronunciation of the Russian language.

Spelling

When studying spelling, it is necessary to operate with the following terms:

• Spelling - a section that studies the rules of spelling.
• Spelling - spelling a word in accordance with the application of spelling rules.

Lexicology and phraseology

• A lexeme is a vocabulary unit, a word.
• Lexicology is a section of the Russian language that studies lexemes, their origin and functioning.
• Synonyms are words that have the same meaning when spelled differently.
• Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning.
• Paronyms are words that have the same spelling but different meanings.
• Homonyms are words that have the same spelling but have different meanings.

• Phraseology is a branch of linguistics that studies phraseological units, their features and principles of functioning in the language.
• Etymology is the science of the origin of words.
• Lexicography is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules for compiling dictionaries and their study.

Morphology

A few words about what Russian linguistic terms are used when studying the morphology section.

• Morphology is the science of language that studies the parts of speech.
• Noun - Nominal independent It denotes the subject that is being discussed and answers the questions: "who?", "What?".
• Adjective - denotes a sign or state of an object and answers the questions: "what?", "what?", "what?". Refers to independent nominal parts.

• A verb is a part of speech denoting an action and answering the questions: “what is he doing?”, “what will he do?”.
• Numeral - indicates the number or order of objects and at the same time answering the questions: "how much?", "Which?". Refers to independent parts of speech.
• Pronoun - indicates an object or person, its attribute, while not naming it.
• An adverb is a part of speech denoting a sign of action. Answers the questions: "how?", "when?", "why?", "where?".
• A preposition is a part of speech that connects words.
• Union - a part of speech that connects syntactic units.
• Particles are words that give emotional or semantic coloring to words and sentences.

Additional terms

In addition to the terms we mentioned earlier, there are a number of concepts that it is desirable for a student to know. Let's highlight the main linguistic terms that are also worth remembering.

• Syntax is a section of linguistics that studies sentences: features of their structure and functioning.
• Language is a sign system that is constantly in development. Serves for communication between people.
• Idiolect - features of the speech of a particular person.
• Dialects are varieties of one language that are opposed to its literary version. Depending on the territory, each dialect has its own characteristics. For example, okane or akanye.

• Abbreviation is the formation of nouns by abbreviating words or phrases.
• Latinism is a word that came to us into use from the Latin language.
• Inversion - a deviation from the generally accepted word order, which makes the rearranged element of the sentence stylistically marked.

Stylistics

The following linguistic terms, examples and definitions of which you will see, are often encountered when considering

• Antithesis is a stylistic device based on opposition.
• Gradation is a technique based on forcing or weakening homogeneous means of expression.
• Diminutive is a word formed with the help of a diminutive suffix.
• An oxymoron is a technique in which combinations of words with seemingly incompatible lexical meanings are formed. For example, "a living corpse."
• Euphemism is the replacement of a word related to obscene language with neutral ones.
• An epithet is a stylistic trope, often an adjective with expressive coloring.

This is not a complete list of required words. We have given only the most necessary linguistic terms.

conclusions

When studying the Russian language, students now and then come across words whose meanings they do not know. To avoid problems in learning, it is advisable to have your own personal dictionary of school terms in the Russian language and literature. Above, we have given the main linguistic words-terms that you will encounter more than once when studying at school and university.

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

"RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY OF JUSTICE"

Crimean branch

Simferopol, 2016

Brief dictionary of linguistic terms in the discipline "Russian language". / Compiled by Khomenko L. N. - Simferopol, 2016. - 44 p.

Reviewer - Doctor of Philology, Professor, Professor of the Department of Social, Economic and Humanitarian Disciplines of the KrF FGBOUVO

"RGUP" Chernikova L. F.

Discussed at a meeting of the Department of General Educational Disciplines

protocol no. 7 from 11 February 2016

The "Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" in the discipline "Russian Language" complies with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Secondary (Complete) General Education.

This publication is a dictionary that includes linguistic terms and concepts that are basic for mastering the general education course of the Russian language and stylistics. The content of the discipline "Russian language" includes a significant number of terms of Greek, Latin and German origin. For better assimilation of theoretical material, it is advisable for students to use philological dictionaries. The training course "Russian Language" is aimed at increasing the level of practical mastery of the modern Russian literary language among legal professionals. The purpose of the educational "Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" is to help students systematize their previously acquired knowledge in the field of studying the Russian language, as well as to study new terms found in educational and scientific literature. The dictionary of linguistic terms includes the concepts of general linguistics, Russian linguistics, history of language and dialectology. Each term has a definition and a description of its meaning.

The presented "Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" is recommended for use by students of the Faculty of Continuous Education studying the discipline "Russian Language" in self-preparation for seminars, work on abstracts, reports, writing essays, essays, performing practical tasks.

Phonetics. Orthoepy and graphics……………………………………………….4

Vocabulary and phraseology …………………………………………………….22

Morphemics and word formation…………………………………………...31

Morphology and syntax…………………………………………………...34

List of used literature………………………………………44

PHONETICS. ORPHEPY and GRAPHICS.

Abbreviation (Italian abbreviatura from Latin brevis - short) - a word formed from the names of initial letters or from the initial sounds of words included in the original phrase.

Paragraph (German Absatz - section, part of the text)- a piece of written speech, consisting of several sentences.

ABC (from the names of the first two letters of the Cyrillic alphabet "az" and "beech i") - a system of graphic signs for conveying the sound of Slavic speech. The alphabet was created in the middle of the 9th century by the brothers Cyril and Methodius.

Acoustic (from Greek akustikos - auditory)- pertaining to auditory perception. The acoustic side of speech sounds.

Accent (lat. accentus - stress) -

1) Same as accent.

2) A peculiar pronunciation that is characteristic of a speaker who does not speak his own language and consists in the involuntary replacement of the sounds of a foreign language with the sounds of his native language. Speak with an accent.

Accentuate- put stress, as well as the stress sign in the word, pronounce the word with an underlined stress.

Accentology- a section of linguistics that studies the issues of stress (nature, types, functions).

Alliteration (from lat. ad - to - at and littera - letter)- the repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving a literary text, usually a verse, a special sound and intonational expressiveness. For example, "The hiss of foamy glasses and punch blue flame" (A. S. Pushkin).

Alphabet (from the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet alpha and beta - in the Middle Greek pronunciation “vita”)- a set of graphic characters (letters) arranged in the order accepted for a given language (or languages). Russian alphabet. Latin alphabet. The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters.

Alphabetical letter- the same as the sound letter.

Apostrophe(Greek apostrophes - turned to the side or back)- superscript in the form of a comma, used: a) to separate service words (particles) in foreign proper names: o "Brien, d" Astier; b) to indicate the softness of a consonant sound in phonetic transcription: [b "it"]

Article(French article, from Latin agticulus)- a service word that accompanies a noun (more often precedes it), being an indicator of the grammatical categories of certainty or indefiniteness, gender, number, and some other meanings (including syntactic ones). Articles are used in Germanic, Romance, Greek, Hungarian and many other languages. Prepositive article before a noun. Postpositive article after a noun. For example, French le peuple, rom. poporul - people.

Articulation(lat. articulatio from articulare - to articulate)- the work of the organs of speech, aimed at the production of sounds.

Assimilation(lat. assimilatio - merging, assimilation)- a phonetic process consisting in the likening of sounds to each other within the same word or phrase.

Assonance(French assonance - consonance)- consonance of vowel sounds (mainly percussion), especially in inaccurate rhyme ("enormity - I'll come to my senses", "sadness - I'll light up")

Runaway vowels- vowels o and e of the modern Russian language, alternating with zero sound during formation and word formation. Sleep/sleep. day/days. Fluent vowels are explained by the fact that in the Old Russian language in their place were not [o] and [e], but the so-called deaf [b] and [b], which in a certain period of the development of the language in a strong position became respectively [o] and [ e], and in a weak one they disappeared: sleep, but sleep.

unstressed vowel sound- a vowel that does not carry stress and is characterized, in comparison with the stressed vowel, by less tension of the organs of speech and less clarity of articulation.

Euphony- one of the qualities of artistic speech, which consists in the beauty and naturalness of its sound. Various forms of using and amplifying the sound of a word give artistic speech greater expressiveness, enhanced emotional coloring.

Letter - a graphic sign in the alphabet of a given language, which serves to designate sounds and their varieties in writing.

Letter or initial(lat. initiālis - "initial")- a large, different initial letter of a chapter or article. Initial letters were often decorated with miniatures, ornaments and images, usually made using the engraving technique.

Monogram(from Polish wezel - knot) –

1) The initial letters of the name and surname or name and patronymic, usually intertwined and forming a pattern.

2) The image of the initial letters of the names of institutions, educational institutions, etc. on uniforms, documents, etc.

Vignette(fr. vignette)- decoration in a book or manuscript: a small drawing or ornament at the beginning or end of the text. A vignette is a small ornamental or plot composition that precedes the text like a splash screen or completes it, acting as an ending. In addition, vignettes can be used in the text itself to decorate the corners of the page.

inner speech- speech, unpronounceable; speech “about oneself”, addressed by the subject to himself.

Vocalism(from lat. vocalis - voice)- the system of vowel sounds of the language, their properties and relationships.

Pitch(sound)- sound quality, depending on the frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords per unit of time: the more vibrations per unit of time, the higher the sound; the less fluctuations per unit time, the lower the sound.

Vowel sounds are the sounds that are formed with the participation of the voice. There are six of them in Russian: [a], [e], [i], [o], [y], [s].

voiceless consonants- consonant sounds formed with the help of one noise, without the participation of the voice: [k], [k "], [p], [p"], [s], [s"], [t], [t"], [f], [f "1, [x], [x"], [c], [h], [w], [w "] (u).

Vocal cords- two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilages of the larynx and located across it (in the direction from the Adam's apple back) almost horizontally. The vocal cords are elastic, can be shortened and stretched, moved apart to different widths of the opening, can be relaxed and tense.

Larynx- the upper part of the windpipe, consisting of several movable cartilages to which the vocal cords are attached.

Graphics(Greek graphike - from grapho - I write)-

1) A type of fine art, the basis of which is a drawing using contour lines, strokes, tones and spots in contrast with a white, colored or black paper surface.

2) Works of this type of art (drawings or printed artistic images - engravings, lithographs, etc.).

3) The totality of means of any writing; letters, symbols.

labial consonants- consonants formed by complete or incomplete convergence of the lower lip with the upper lip or upper teeth: [p], [p "], [b], [b"], [f], [f "]; [c], [c "], [mm"].

Dissimilation(lat. dissimilatio - dissimilarity)- replacement of one of two identical or similar sounds with another, less similar one. Dissimilation is a rare phenomenon in the literary language; it usually occurs in irregular speech. "Kolidor" (instead of a corridor), "tranway" (instead of a tram) - colloquially.

long consonant –

1) Extra-pair long soft hissing [w "] and [w"]. Shi, yeast.

2) Double slits at the junction of morphemes and words. Seedling [s], from crop [h].

3) Long consonants not at the junction of morphemes in words of foreign origin. Bath [n], cash desk [s], gamma [m]. (all phonemes with a longitude sign).

Trembling consonants(vibrants)- consonant sounds, during the formation of which the bow sequentially and periodically opens and closes again, and the active organs of speech tremble (vibrate). Various kinds [p].

Yokanye - pronunciation in some dialects [e] instead of [e] in the first pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants. [n "esu] (spelling I carry), [t" enu] (spelling I pull).

yer- the name of the letter "b"; hard sign.

era- the name of the letter "s."

Yer- the name of the letter "b"; soft sign.

Capital or lower case letter- a letter that is enlarged in size compared to lowercase letters.

Header, or headword, or main word - a word explained in a dictionary entry and being its title.

Closed syllable A syllable that ends in a consonant. Russian also has closed syllables. The word "table" is a closed syllable, as it ends in a consonant.

Screensaver, screensaver(old - slav. put)- in the art of book design - a small, miniature graphic composition that opens the text. In ancient Russian early printed books, it is associated with an initial - a capital letter.

transcribe - means to write a transcription. It is written in square brackets, [B "ileiet]. The softness of the sound is indicated by the sign "(apostrophe). The letter "Y" - j.

Voiced consonants are sounds that consist of noise and voice. When they are pronounced, the air stream not only overcomes the barrier in the oral cavity, but also vibrates the vocal cords. The following sounds are voiced: [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [g], [g '], [d], [d '], [g], [h], [ h'], [d'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [p], [p']. The voiced sound is also [zh ’], found in the speech of individuals in the words yeast, reins and some others.

The sound of speech- an element of spoken speech, formed by speech organs. With the phonetic articulation of speech, a sound is a part of a syllable, the shortest, then indivisible sound unit, pronounced in one articulation. Vowel. Consonant.

sound recording- sound repetitions, saturation with the same or similar sounds for the purpose of figurative onomatopoeia. For example, the repetition of sounds [w], [p] and [n] in the famous poems of A.S. Pushkin "The hiss of frothy glasses and punch a blue flame."

Onomatopoeic words- words that, in their sound design, are a reproduction of the reflective exclamations of people; sounds and cries made by animals, birds, sounds of natural phenomena, sounds made by objects, etc. In appearance, some onomatopoeic words come close to interjections, but differ from them, since they do not express either feelings or expressions of will. They are used as an expressive and stylistic means of displaying reality, for example, “meow-meow”, “woof-woof”, “qua-qua”, “coo-coo”,

tick-tock.

Dental consonants- consonants formed by pressing the tip of the tongue together with the most front part to the back side of the front upper teeth. According to the active organ, they are referred to as anterior lingual. Interlocking dental [t], [t "], [d], [d "]. Slotted teeth [s], [s "], [s], [s"]. Dental nasal [n], [n "]. Dental lateral [l], [l "].

initial (lat. initialis - "initial")-

1) The initial letters of the first and last name, first name and patronymic or first name, patronymic and last name.

2) The first capital letters of a text, chapter, etc. (usually oversized), sometimes decorated with ornaments, patterns, etc. The initials appeared in late antiquity. They were written in red paint, hence the expression "from the red line."

Hieroglyphs(from Greek hieroglyphoi - sacred writings)- curly signs, known from the 4th millennium BC in ancient Egyptian writing, where they served to designate whole words (concepts) or individual syllables and speech sounds. Initially, their name meant "sacred writings carved on stone."

Hiccup- indistinction - in unstressed syllables. In practice, this means pronunciation in some dialects [and] instead of [s] in the first pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants. For example, [n "isu] (spelling I carry), [t" inu] (spelling I pull).

Intonation(lat. intotonō "I speak loudly")- a system of changes in the relative pitch in a syllable, word and whole utterance (phrase).

Yot - a medium lingual voiced fricative consonant adjacent to the subsequent vowel, with which it forms an iotized sound. Apple, spruce, district, view [in "j + y].

Iota- the letter of the Greek alphabet, denoting the sound [and].

Yotation- the appearance of the sound [j] before a vowel sound at the beginning of a word or between vowels. Old Slavonic oun Old Russian jun.

Iotated (iotated) vowels- vowels that have a sound [j] in front of them. E , e , u , i .

Cacophony ( Greek kakopbonia - bad sound)- cacophony, a combination of sounds that cuts the ear. Often, cacophony in speech is created by the annoying repetition of the same sounds, their accumulation in a sentence. For example, "Which river is as wide as the Oka?"

Calligraphy(Greek calligraphia - beautiful handwriting)- the art of writing in a clear and beautiful handwriting.

Cyrillic- one of the first two alphabets of the Old Slavonic letter (the second was the Glagolitic alphabet), which got its name from the name Cyril, adopted by the Byzantine missionary Constantine the Philosopher during his tonsure as a monk. The Cyrillic alphabet differed from the Glagolitic alphabet in a simpler and clearer form of letters. The modern Russian alphabet was created on the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet.

Context(lat. contextus - close connection, connection) –

1) A segment of written speech (text) that is complete, in a semantic sense, which makes it possible to accurately establish the meaning of an individual word or sentence included in it.

2) The conditions for the use of a given language unit in speech (the language environment, and in a broad sense also the situation of speech communication).

Red line- indent before a paragraph. “Start from the red line” - figuratively means to start all over again.

A culture of speech -

1) A section of philological science that studies the speech life of society in a certain era and establishes on a scientific basis the rules for using language as the main means of communication between people, an instrument for the formation and expression of thoughts.

2) Normativity of speech, its compliance with the requirements for the language in a given language community in a certain historical period, compliance with the norms of pronunciation, stress, word usage, form formation, construction of phrases and sentences.

Ligature(medieval Latin - ligatura from Latin ligare - to bind)- a letter formed from the combination of elements of two letters.

Linguistics(linguistics, linguistics; from lat. lingua - language) is the science that studies languages. This is the science of natural human language in general and of all languages ​​of the world as its individual representatives.

Litera(Latin littera) -

1) Letter (obsolete and retired).

2) A metal block with a convex image of a letter or other printed character, used in a typographical set.

3) Certificate for preferential travel by rail, indicated by a conventional letter (official, railway). Military letter.

Literary pronunciation- pronunciation that complies with all modern rules of phonetics and linguistics, artistic reading without errors.

Literary language- a normalized language that serves the diverse cultural needs of the people, the language of fiction, journalistic works, periodicals, radio, theater, science, government agencies, schools, etc.

logical stress- highlighting in the pronunciation of one of the words of the sentence to enhance its semantic load. For example:

I today, I will go to the institute (not anyone else, but me).

I today I will go to the institute (not on another day, but today).

I am today I will go to the institute (I definitely use one of the modes of transport).

I will go today in the Institute(not to another place, namely to the institute).

Logo(from the Greek. logos - "word" and typos - "imprint")- in a broad sense - a graphic symbol, the original style of the full or abbreviated name of an organization or product. The logo is the verbal part of the trademark. The term "logotype" appeared at the beginning of the 19th century in typography and was synonymous with the term "ligature".

Interdental consonants- consonants formed by the tip of the tongue and the edge of the upper teeth (in English, they are depicted in writing through th).

Melody of speech- see intonation.

melodic accent- the same as musical stress (see stress).

Metathesis(from Greek metathesis - permutation)- permutation of sounds or syllables in the composition of the word. For example, "plate" - "talerka", "palm" - "palm".

Monogram(from the Greek. monos - "one" and gramma - "letter, record, sign")- a kind of abbreviation, a sign that replaces the full inscription or signature of a person.

soft consonant- a consonant, during the pronunciation of which the tongue rises more to the palate and narrows the passage through which the air flows, than when pronouncing a solid consonant sound. For example, in the word "break" when pronouncing the first consonant sound [p "], the air passes through a narrower gap than when pronouncing the second consonant sound [p]. For example, in the word "river" a soft consonant sound [p "] is heard, and in the word "hand" - a solid consonant sound [r]. The softness of a consonant is indicated by adding the symbol "to its record, for example: [p"]. Always soft sounds: [th '], [h '], [u ']. The remaining sounds are soft if they are immediately followed by the vowels e, ё, and, u, i or ь, and hard if they are followed by other vowels and consonants.

Unpaired consonants- these are consonants, devoid of correlation in deafness-voicedness.

1) Unpaired voiced consonants: [l, l`], [m, m`], [n, n`], [p, p`], [j]; unpaired voiceless consonants: [x, x`], [ c], [h], [u].

2) Consonants, devoid of correlation in hardness-softness. Unpaired solid consonants: [g], [w], [c]; unpaired soft consonants: [h], [w], [j].

disagreement- this is the presence within one morpheme of combinations -ra-, -la-, -re-, -le- in the Old Church Slavonic language and in modern South Slavic languages. Non-vowel combinations in the Russian language are found in Slavicisms. Gates (cf.: gate), head (cf.: head), Wednesday (cf.: middle), captivate (cf.: captivate). See full agreement.

Silent consonants- consonant letters, devoid of sound meaning in certain combinations (the term is conditional, since letters are not pronounced at all, and there are no unpronounceable sounds). Unpronounceable consonants include:

1) t, in combinations stn (sad, sad, rainy, coeval, furious), stl (happy), ntsk (giant, amateurish), stack (Marxist);

2) d in combinations zdn (holiday), rdts (heart), also ndsk (Dutch);

3) e in combinations vstv (to feel), lvstv (to remain silent);

4) l in combination lnts, (sun).

Non-syllable vowel- a vowel that does not form a syllable.

Norm- entrenched in the practice of exemplary use, language (speech) variants that best perform their function. Pronunciation (orthoepic) norm. lexical norm. morphological norm. syntax norm.

Nasal vowels- vowels pronounced with the inclusion of the nasal resonator, i.e. with the soft palate lowered, as a result of which the air stream exits both through the mouth and through the nose, which gives the vowel a nasal timbre and lowers the pitch. There are no such vowels in the Russian language, they were in the Slavic languages), there are in French, Portuguese, Polish.

Nasal consonants- consonant sounds, during the formation of which the glottis is narrowed, the stretched vocal cords vibrate with an air stream, a significant part of which, after leaving the larynx, passes through the nose, since the palatine curtain is lowered. Labial nasal [m]. Dental nasal [n].

Zero sound - the absence of sound, acting as a grammatical indicator in alternation. Choose - choose, send - send.

Stunning consonants- replacement of a voiced noisy consonant with the corresponding deaf consonant in pairs in certain positions: 1) at the end of a word. Stunning of the final voiced occurs: a) before a pause. Dial a bouquet of roses [gr]; b) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, a sonorant consonant, as well as [c] and [j]. The middle race [mouth], he is right [great], rye grows [rosh], your garden [sat], I am weak [weak]; 2) in the middle of a word before a deaf consonant. Smoothly [glat].

Voicing of consonants- replacing a deaf consonant with the corresponding voiced pair in certain positions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: collection [collection], deal [zd "elk]; 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: to the house [g-house], from the dacha [h - dacha].

okanye- distinction - in unstressed syllables. In practice, this means pronunciation in an unstressed syllable in place of the letter o of the sound [o], which is characteristic of northern Russian dialects [head], [side].

Organs of speech- various parts of the human body involved in the formation of speech sounds (speech apparatus). The organs of speech are active, producing the main work necessary for the formation of sound: tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis. The organs of speech are passive, incapable of independent work and, in the formation of sounds, serving as a fulcrum for active organs: teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx. As a driving force in the formation of sounds (to obtain a jet of air), the diaphragm, lungs, bronchi, and trachea are used.

Orthoepic norm- this is the only possible or preferred version of the correct, exemplary pronunciation of the word.

Pronouncing dictionary- a dictionary that reflects the orthoepic norm, that is, its contemporary literary pronunciation and stress. It differs from the explanatory dictionary in the way the word is described, since it reveals the word only in the orthoepic aspect.

Orthoepy(from Greek orthos - straight, correct + epos - speech)- 1) A section of linguistics that studies normative literary pronunciation.

2) A set of rules that establish a uniform pronunciation that corresponds to the pronunciation standards adopted in a given language.

open vowel- a vowel, during the pronunciation of which the highest point of the raised part of the tongue is slightly lower than when pronouncing the corresponding closed vowels. Open [e] and [o] in some Western European languages.

open syllable- A syllable that ends in a vowel. Ko-lo-yes, stra-to-sphere, dos-ka, thread, lav-ka, ved-ro, y-por-but.

jerky speech- sounding sharp, interrupted by pauses.

Paleography (from Greek palaios - ancient + grapho- I write) - a science that studies the external side of ancient manuscripts (writing method, features of the material on which they wrote, letter shapes, their modifications, etc.) in order to determine the time and place of origin of the manuscript, identify existing errors in the text, and establish the reasons for their appearance etc.

Paired consonants- these are consonants, correlative in deafness-voicedness: [b - p], [c - f], [g - k],] [d - t], [g - w], [h - s]; by hardness-softness: [b - b '], [ c - c '], [ d - d '].

Paronyms(from Greek raga - near, onoma - name)- words with the same root, similar in sound, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in their meaning. For example, the addressee is the addressee.

pause (lat. pausa from Greek. pausis - termination)- a temporary stop of sound, breaking the flow of speech, caused by various reasons and performing various functions.

Writing–

1) The totality of written monuments of any era. Old Russian writing.

2) A system of graphic signs used to fix speech in writing.

Letter- an additional means of communication to sound speech using a system of graphic signs.

Letter pictographic(from lat. pictus - picturesque, painted with paints + Greek grapho - I write)- pictorial letter, picture letter. A letter in which a graphic sign (in the form of a picture or a conventional image) serves to convey the content of speech - a life situation, events associated with living beings, things, etc., but does not reflect linguistic forms (phonetic and grammatical).

full agreement - characteristic of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, the presence of combinations of oro, olo, ere between consonants, corresponding to the Church Slavonic ra, la, re, le. For example, a gate is a gate, gold is gold, before is before, milk is milk.

Handwriting- a system of movements, characteristic for each writer and based on his writing and motor skills, fixed in the manuscript, with the help of which conditional graphic signs are performed.

Miscellaneous stress- stress, which is characterized by the possibility of placing stress in different, but relatively strictly defined syllables of the word. For example, teacher teachers

Reduction(lat. reductio from reducere - bring back, return; reduce, reduce)- weakening of the articulation of the sound and a change in its sound (this mainly applies to vowels in an unstressed position).

speech apparatus- a set of organs of speech (lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm).

Speech etiquette- in the narrow sense of the word, it can be characterized as a system of linguistic means in which etiquette relations are manifested.

Speech- the activity of a speaker who uses the means of language to communicate with other members of a given language community (speaking) or to refer to himself.

Rhetoric(Greek rhetorike)- the theory of expressive speech, the theory of eloquence, oratory.

Native language- a language acquired by a child in early childhood by imitating the adults around him.

Whistling sounds- anterior lingual dental fricative [s], [s "] and [s], [s"]. When they are formed between the anterior part of the tongue and the hard palate, a narrow gap is formed in the form of a groove, passing through which the air stream produces a sharp noise resembling a whistle.

word stress- the type of stress determined within the word and consisting in the selection of one of its syllables.

Consonants- speech sounds that are combined in a syllable with vowels and, in contrast, do not form the top of the syllable. Consonants are also often understood as letters that convey such sounds. Sometimes, to avoid confusion, the term "consonant sounds" is used. In Russian, consonants are transmitted by the letters B, C, G, D, Zh, Z, Y, K, L, M, N, P, R, C, T, F, X, C, Ch, W, Shch. They opposed to the vowels A, E, E, I, O, U, Y, E, Yu, Ya.

Sonorant consonants are sounds produced without the participation of the air flow in the vocal tract. The Russian language has the following sonorous consonants: /l/, /m/, /n/, /r/. Sonorant sounds also include the sound [j], which is present, for example, in the word "iodine".

Syllable- this is the minimum phonetic unit, characterized by the greatest acoustic-articulatory fusion of its components, that is, the sounds included in it. The syllable has no connection with the formation and expression of semantic relations. This is a purely pronunciation unit. In a syllable, sounds of varying degrees of sonority are grouped, the most sonorous are syllabic, the rest are non-syllabic.

Transcription- a system for transmitting the sound of words by written and some conventional signs, reflecting only the phonemes of these words. When reading the phonemic transcription of any language, it is necessary to take into account its phonetic laws, using the corresponding variants of phonemes in pronunciation.

Timbre(French timbre) -

1) Sound quality, depending on the ratio in height and strength of the main tone with additional ones.

2) Sound coloring characteristic of each voice (or instrument). Soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, bass.

Speech rate- the speed of pronunciation of speech elements (sounds, syllables, words). It should, however, be noted that the absolute rate of speech depends on the individual traits of the speaker, the characteristics of his emotional state and the situation of communication, and the style of pronunciation.

stress- the allocation of one of the syllables in the composition of the word by various phonetic means (intensifying the voice, raising the tone in combination with an increase in duration, intensity, loudness).

stressed vowel- a vowel sound that is stressed.

Phoneme(Greek phonema - sound)- the shortest sound unit capable of distinguishing sound shells (sound side, sounding) of different words and morphemes.

Phoneme strong- a phoneme in a strong position, which has the maximum distinctive ability within a word form or phonemic series.

The phoneme is weak- a phoneme in a weak position, having less or minimal distinctiveness within a word form or phonemic series.

Phonetics (Greek phonetike from phnne - sound)- a section of linguistics that studies the methods of formation and acoustic properties of the sounds of human speech.

Phonetics historical- a section of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language in its development.

Phonetics general- a section of linguistics that studies theoretical issues of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, the structure of a syllable, the relationship of the sound side of a language to its grammatical system, using the material of various languages.

Descriptive phonetics- a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a particular language in a synchronous plan.

Phonetics experimental- study of speech sounds using experimental research methods.

clatter -

1) A feature of the Russian northern dialects is the pronunciation of the sound "ts" in place of "h" of the literary language or a mixture of these sounds in one, in contrast to choking.

2) The sound produced when something metallic strikes a stone.

- H-

Frequency- an indicator of the frequency of use, prevalence in speech.

Sound alternation- change of sounds occupying the same place in the morpheme in different cases of its use.

someone else's speech - the statement of other persons included in the author's presentation.

Whisper - quiet speech, in which sounds are pronounced without a voice.

hissing sounds- speech sounds, for example, w, w, h, producing the impression of a hiss to the ear.

noisy consonants- consonants formed by noise accompanied by a voice (voiced consonants) or with the help of noise alone (voiced consonants).

fricative consonants- consonants, during the pronunciation of which there is a convergence of the organs of speech, as a result of which the air stream, passing through the gap formed, produces a friction noise.

Eexpression (Latin expressio - expression)- something that makes something expressive that makes something expressive .

Esperanto- the most common of artificial languages, an auxiliary means of international communication. It was created in 1887 by the Warsaw doctor L. Zamenhof, whose pseudonym Esperanto (hoping) became the name of the language.

Yus - the name of two letters of the Slavic alphabet. Yus big (designated the nasal sound “o”), Yus small (denoted the nasal sound “e”).

Language- the sound and written system of speech of a certain people, which is an instrument for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serving as the most important means of communication between people. Language forms an organic unity with thinking, since one does not exist without the other.

Sign language- an independent, naturally occurring or artificially created language, consisting of a combination of gestures, each of which is made by hands in combination with facial expressions, the shape or movement of the mouth and lips, and also in combination with the position of the body. These languages ​​are mainly used by deaf or hard of hearing people for the purpose of communication.

Language of interethnic communication- a language that is used as a means of communication by representatives of different nationalities within the same country.

Linguistics - the same as linguistics.

Lingual consonants- consonants, in the formation of which the active organ is the language.

Yakanye -

1) Action from the verb yak.

2) A kind of akanya - the pronunciation of the unstressed "e" as "a" with the preceding softness, denoted in writing by the letter "I". For example, vyasna, syastra (spring, sister).

Vocabulary and phraseology

Active vocabulary- vocabulary that is used by the student productively to express thoughts in speech and writing, in contrast to the passive vocabulary that the student understands when reading and listening, but does not use it in speech. A. l. also called reproductive, in contrast to receptive (passive) vocabulary.

Antonyms, -ov; pl. (singular antonym, -a; m.) from Greek. anti- - against and ónyma - name, name) Lingu. Words that have the opposite meaning (for example: truth - lies, poor - rich, love - hate).

Americanisms, -a; m. lingu. - a word, figure of speech, reflecting the peculiarities of the English language in the United States or borrowed from the American version of the English language.

anglicisms (English)anglicism) - words, expressions borrowed from English, for example . autorail, business, image service, producer.

Anecdote, -a; m. (from the Greek. anekdotos - unpublished)

1) One of the genres of folklore: a short humorous story, usually making fun of someone, something. A. about smth. A. about someone, smth. Tell a. Laugh with a joke. Know a lot of jokes. Children's a. Fresh a. Soldier, greasy jokes.

2) Expand. Unusual occurrence, event. Bad, unpleasant a. happened to someone. Here's a. happened to me. ●Originally: An entertaining or instructive story about the life of a historical figure, legendary hero, etc.

anthroponym (ancient Greek ἄνθρωπος - person and ὄνομα - name)- a single proper name or a set of proper names that identify a person. More broadly this the name of any person: fictional or real.

appellative (from lat. appellātīvus - common noun; lat. appellāre - to speak, to call)- a linguistic term, often acting as a synonym for the term common noun.

Argo(invariant; cf. (French argot) lingv. - some speech. a small social closed group that differs from the national language in vocabulary, but does not have its own phonetics and grammatical system; jargon. Vorovskoye a.

Argotism, -a; m. (French argotisme), lingv.- a word borrowed from a literary language slang, jargon.

Archaism, -a; m. (Greek archáios - ancient) -

1) A relic of antiquity (about household items, phenomena, concepts, etc.).

2) Lingu. Obsolete word, turn of speech, grammatical form.

Barbarism, -a; m. (Greek: barbarismos), ling.- a foreign word or expression, perceived as alien to the native language and used instead of an already existing word or expression.

Vulgarism, -a; m.- a vulgar word or expression used in a literary language.

Grammatical homonomies (homoforms)(from Greek homos - the same + lat. forma - form)- homonymous forms; words that coincide in their sound only in separate forms (the same part of speech or different parts of speech). For example, I drive (from to drive) - I drive (from to carry); I'm flying (from flying) - I'm flying (from treating); oven (noun) - oven (verb); verse (poem) - verse (past tense form of the verb subside). Homoforms are also called grammatical homonyms.

Graphic homonyms (homophones)(from Greek homos - the same + phone - voice, sound)- different, words that sound the same but have different spellings. For example, a meadow is a bow, a fruit is a raft, a genus is a mouth. Homophones are also called phonetic homonyms.

Gallicism(lat. gallicismus, fr. gallicisme)- a word or expression borrowed from or derived from French.

Hydronyms (fromother Greek ὕδωρ - water +ὄνομα - name)- one of the classes of toponyms - the names of water bodies (rivers, lakes, seas, bays, straits, canals, etc.)

Gelonym(fromGreekἝλος, τέλμα - stagnant water, swamp)- the proper name of any swamp, wetland. Kind of hydronym. Examples: Devil's swamp, goat swamp, Keys, Moss, Burnt moss. The totality of gelonyms in a certain territory constitutes gelonymy.

Germanism, -a; m.- a word or figure of speech in smth. language, borrowed from the German language or built on a model characteristic of the German language.

Desemantization - (from the Latin prefix de-, meaning separation, cancellation -t- ​​Greek semantikos - denoting)- loss of lexical meaning by the word. cf. the significant character of the verb to be in combination to be at home and the service character - in combination to be ready.)

Dialect (Greek διάλεκτος - "adverb" from Greek διαλέγομαι - "to speak, to speak")- a kind of language that is used as a means of communication between people connected by one territory.

Dialectism (in style)- a lexical unit characteristic of a territorial or social dialect.

Euphemism (Greek ευφήμη - "praising")- a word or descriptive expression that is neutral in meaning and emotional “load”, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate.

Equivalent (from late Latin aequivalens - “equivalent”, “equivalent”, “equivalent”)- something equivalent or corresponding in any respect to something, replacing it or serving as its expression.

exoticism- a foreign borrowing denoting an object or phenomenon from the life of another people.

Enantiosemy (from Greek enantios - opposite, opposite + sema - sign)- development of antonymic meanings in the word, polarization of meanings.

Etymology (ancient Greek ἐτυμολογία, from other Greek ἔτυμον “truth, the basic meaning of a word” and other Greek λόγος “word, teaching, judgment”) is a section of linguistics (comparative historical linguistics) that studies the origin words (and rarely morphemes). And also - the research methodology used to identify the history of the origin of a word (or morpheme) and the very result of such discovery.

Ethnonyms (from Greek έθνος - tribe, people and όνυμα - name, name)- names of nations, peoples, nationalities, tribes, tribal unions, clans and the like.

jargon- these are words limited in their use by a certain social or age environment.

Borrowed words- words that were taken from another language.

Meaning- content indicated by one or another language expression - a word, a sentence, a sign, etc.

Zoonym (from Greek ζω̃ου - "animal" and ὄνομα - "name, name") –

1) proper name (nickname) of the animal (for example, Mukhtar, Murka);

2) a common noun denoting an animal (eg, dog, cat).

Hieroglyph (ancient Greek ἱερογλύφος)- the name of a written character in some writing systems. Hieroglyphs can mean both individual sounds and syllables (elements of alphabetic and syllabic writing), and morphemes, whole words and concepts (ideograms).

historicisms- words or set phrases that are the names of objects that once existed, but disappeared, phenomena of human life.

Historicisms belong to the passive vocabulary and have no synonyms in the modern language.

Chancery- a word or figure of speech characteristic of the style of business papers and documents.

Book vocabulary- one of the main categories of literary vocabulary, along with colloquial vocabulary and neutral vocabulary; has a predominant distribution in book speech.

cosmonym- names of galaxies, star clusters, nebulae, constellations, planets, comets, asteroids.

Idioms- a stable phraseological unit of a figurative or aphoristic nature, which entered the vocabulary from historical or literary sources and became widespread due to its expressiveness.

Lexicology (from other Greek λέξις - word, expression, λόγος - science, judgment)- a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary. Lexicology is divided into general and particular. Private lexicology studies the lexical composition of a particular language.

Vocabulary (from other Greek τὸ λεξικός - "related to the word", from ἡ λέξις - "word", "turn of speech")- a set of words of a particular language, part of a language or words that a particular person or group of people knows. Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about any objects, phenomena.

Lexeme (from other Greek λέξις - word, expression, figure of speech)- word as an abstract unit of morphological analysis. Different paradigmatic forms (word forms) of one word are combined into one lexeme. For example, a dictionary, a dictionary, a dictionary are forms of the same lexeme, written as a dictionary by convention.

Lexical meaning- the ratio of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another.

Latinisms- borrowed from the Latin language words and turns of speech, constructed according to the Latin model in any other language.

Lexicography (ancient Greek λεξικόν, lexikon - "dictionary" and γράφω, grapho - "I write")- a branch of linguistics dealing with the compilation of dictionaries and their study; a science that studies the semantic structure of a word, the features of words, their interpretation.

Linguistics (linguistics, linguistics; from lat. lingua - language) is the science that studies languages. This is the science of natural human language in general and of all languages ​​of the world as its individual representatives. In the broad sense of the word, linguistics is divided into scientific and practical. Most often, linguistics refers to scientific linguistics. It is part of semiotics as a science of signs.

Dead language- a language that does not exist in living use and, as a rule, is known only from written monuments, or is in artificial regulated use. This usually happens when one language is completely replaced in use by another language.

Methods , methods and strategies for researching the subject.

Monosemia(from Greek monos - one + serna - sign)- the same as unambiguity.

Neologism (ancient Greek νέος - new, λόγος - speech, word)- a word, the meaning of a word or a phrase that has recently appeared in the language (newly formed, previously absent).

Neutralvocabulary- words that are not attached to a specific style of speech, having stylistic synonyms (bookish, colloquial, vernacular), against which they are devoid of stylistic coloring.

Ambiguous words are opposed to significant words. They do not name objects, signs or other phenomena of reality, but indicate the relationships that exist between them.

Homonyms (other Greek ὁμός - the same + ὄνομα - name)- different in meaning, but the same in sound and spelling, words, morphemes and other units of the language.

Common vocabulary- common vocabulary includes words without which communication in any sphere of human activity is unthinkable. These words express vital concepts and are used in all styles of language and speech. Since the common vocabulary is empty and natural, intelligible and clear and lacks emotional and expressive coloring, it is often called neutral. But this gives rise to an erroneous idea of ​​the weak expressiveness of the words related here, meanwhile, not a single speech style is possible without it.

Onomastics (from other Greek ὀνομαστική - the art of giving names)- a section of linguistics that studies any proper names.

Proverb- a small form of folk poetry, dressed in a short, rhythmic saying, carrying a generalized thought, conclusion, allegory with a didactic bias.

Proverb- a phrase reflecting some phenomenon of life, one of the small genres of folklore.

Paremia (from Greek παροιμία - saying, proverb, parable)- a stable phraseological unit, which is a complete sentence of didactic content.

Polysemy (from Greek πολυσημεία - "polysemy")- polysemy, multivariance, that is, the presence of a word (language unit, term) of two or more meanings, historically determined or interconnected in meaning and origin.

colloquial vocabulary are words used in informal conversation.

Semantics (from other Greek σημαντικός - denoting)- a branch of linguistics that studies the semantic meaning of language units.

Synonyms- words belonging, as a rule, to the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having a similar lexical meaning.

Word- one of the main structural units of the language, which serves to name objects, their qualities and characteristics, their interactions, as well as the naming of imaginary and abstract concepts created by the human imagination.

System (from other Greek σύστημα - a whole made up of parts; connection)- a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity.

Slang- a set of special words or new meanings of already existing words used in various groups of people (professional, social, age, etc.)

Old Church Slavonicisms- words borrowed from the Old Slavonic language, the language of liturgical books. Therefore, Old Slavonicisms also include Church Slavonicisms.

Terminology- a set of terms used in a particular field of knowledge.

Toponym (from other Greek τόπος - place + ὄνομα - name, name)- a proper name denoting the proper name of a geographical object.

obsolete words- these are words with which it is important to familiarize the baby before reading a fairy tale or explain their meaning while reading, so that the meaning of the work is perceived exactly as the authors would like.

Phraseology (from Greek φράσις - expression and Greek λογος - concept, doctrine)- a section of theoretical linguistics that studies stable speech turns and expressions - phraseological units, the totality of phraseological units of a language is also called its phraseology.

Phraseologism (phraseological unit, phraseological phrase)- a stable phrase that has a definite. lexical meaning, constant component composition and the presence of grammatical. categories. F. arises and develops in yaz. by rethinking specific phrases.

Morphemics and word formation

Affix, -a; m. (from lat. affixus - attached), lingu. - a part of a word that joins the root and introduces a certain grammatical or word-building meaning (cf. prefix, infix, suffix, postfix, inflection). Derivational and inflectional affixes.

Allomorph (Allomorph)- a linguistic term denoting a variant of a morpheme that can have different pronunciations without changing its meaning. Used in linguistics to explain the existence of different pronunciation options for individual morphemes.

Non-affix way of word formation- this is the formation of new words (nouns) from the generating stem (verb or adjective) without adding affixes (the forming stem becomes the stem of the noun). Explosion, glow, trailer, absenteeism, run; filth, filth, filth, filth.

-G-

as a science, it is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagms, sentences, texts). Grammar formulates these regularities in the form of general grammatical rules.

Derivative- derived word

Derivation(from lat. derivatio - assignment; formation)- the process of creating some language units (derivatives) on the basis of others taken as initial ones, in the simplest case - by “expanding” the root due to affixation (see Affix) or word formation, in connection with which derivation is sometimes equated with word production or even word formation.

Infix – (lat. infixus - inserted) - this is an affix inserted inside the stem root during inflection and word formation. This type of affix is ​​not inherent in the Russian language.

Root- a morpheme that carries the lexical meaning of the word (or the main part of this meaning).

Confix(from lat. confixum - jointly taken, lingv.)- a kind of affix, consisting of two parts - a prefix and a postfix, carrying the same meaning.

Morphemics (from Greek morph - ‘form’)- This is a branch of the science of language, in which the composition (structure) of a word is studied.

Morpheme(from Greek raorphe - form) - the smallest linguistic unit that has a meaning.

Zero ending- this is the ending that occurs in a number of modified words. Its difference from other endings is that it is not expressed by any sounds or letters.

Ending is a morpheme that usually stands at the end of a word and which indicates the connection of this word with other words. The ending expresses the meanings of gender, number, case, person.

Homomorphemes are (from the Greek homos - the same + morphe- form)- morphemes that coincide in their sound composition, but different in meaning (homonymous morphemes).

foundation- this is a type of word formation in which new words are created by combining two or more stems (non-independent words) into one word.

The foundation- part of the word before the end, with which its lexical meaning is associated.

Prefix (Latin praefixum - attached in front), (prefix)- the minimum significant part of the word, standing before the root and giving the word new meanings.

Postfix (from lat. post - after + fixus - attached) is a derivational morpheme following the ending. A postfix can be called a suffix in Russian. In Russian grammar, one group is distinguished - postfixes in the narrow sense, which are called a reflexive morpheme, usually standing after the ending.

Prefix- a way of word formation by adding a prefix.

Suffix (from lat. suffixus - nailed, nailed) - significant part of a word, an auxiliary morpheme, located after the root (directly or after another suffix) and serving to form new words or their non-syntactic forms.

Suffixation- joining suffixes to roots and stems as a way of word formation and shaping.

word formation is a branch of the science of language that studies the structure of words and how they are formed.

Composition- a way of word formation, two or more complete words (or stems) are combined into a single complex, the so-called compound word.

Flexia (Latin flexio - bending, transition)- a complex of grammatical categories expressed in inflection, a set of morphemes that carry out inflection.

The form- one of the ways of using a word, morpheme.

Formant (from lat. formans, formantis - forming)- a word-formation tool used in the production of a word.

Morphology and syntax

Aspectology (lat. aspectus - view and other Greek λόγος - teaching)- a section of morphology that studies the types (aspects) of the verb.

Analytical (gr. Analytikos)-lingu. but. languages ​​(English, French, etc.)- languages ​​in which the relationship between words in a sentence is mainly expressed not by the forms of the words themselves, but by function words, word order, intonation, etc. Opposite - synthetic.

abstract nouns- these are nouns that name abstract phenomena that are perceived mentally (they have only the singular or only the plural, do not combine with cardinal numbers).

impersonal proposals- These are one-part sentences that talk about an action or state that arises and exists independently of the producer of the action or the carrier of the state.

Associative complex sentence (BSP)- a complex sentence, the predicative parts of which are interconnected in meaning and structure, and are also connected without the help of conjunctions or relative words by rhythmic melodic means, the order of the parts.

Time- the grammatical category of the verb, expressing the ratio of the time of the situation described in the speech to the moment of pronouncing the statement (that is, to the moment of speech or the length of time, which in the language is denoted by the word "now"), which is taken as a reference point (absolute time) or the ratio of time to another relative time reference point (relative time).

Real nouns denote substances homogeneous in composition that are subject to measurement, division, but not counting (i.e., uncountable!)

exclamatory sentences- These are sentences that convey strong feelings and emotions of the speaker.

Grammar (other Greek γραμματική from γράμμα - “letter”) as a science, it is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagms, sentences, texts).

grammatical meaning- the meaning expressed by the inflectional morpheme (grammatical indicator).

Grammeme (English grammeme)- grammatical meaning, understood as one of the elements of the grammatical category; different grammes of the same category are mutually exclusive and cannot be expressed together.

Grammatical form- a linguistic sign in which a grammatical meaning is expressed in one grammatical way or another (regularly, standardly).

Verb- an independent part of speech that indicates the state or action of an object and answers the questions what to do? what to do?

Two-part sentences- this is one of the types of a simple sentence, the grammatical basis of which consists of a combination of a subject and a predicate.

gerund- an independent part of speech or a special form of the verb in Russian, denoting an additional action with the main action. This part of speech combines the features of the verb (kind, voice, transitivity and reflexivity) and adverbs (invariability, syntactic role of circumstance). Answers questions by doing what? having done what?

Addition- a minor member of a sentence expressed by a noun or a pronominal noun. The addition denotes the object or person who is the object of the action indicated by the predicate and answers questions of indirect cases (“what?”, “whom?”, “to whom?”, etc.).

Noun- an independent part of speech that denotes an object and answers the questions who? what?

Adjective- this is an independent (significant) part of speech, which indicates a sign of an object and answers the questions of what ? whose ?

Numeral- this is an independent part of speech that combines words that denote numbers, the number of objects or the order of objects when counting and answer the question How many? or which?

Infinitive (lat. infinitivus (modus) - indefinite)- an indefinite form of the verb, one of the impersonal forms of the verb. In Russian, the infinitive can be part of a compound verbal predicate.

Infinitive sentences- these are impersonal sentences, the predicates of which can be expressed in one indefinite form, without any auxiliary words. Impersonal sentences with such a predicate are usually used in colloquial speech. Their utterance is accompanied by a special expressive intonation.

Specific nouns- these are nouns that name specific objects of animate and inanimate nature (they change in numbers, combined with cardinal numbers).

Kanoun gender category- this is a non-inflective syntagmatically distinguished morphological category, expressed in the ability of a noun in singular forms to relate selectively to generic forms by a word form that agrees or coordinates with it.

Noun number category- this is an inflectional category, expressed in a system of two opposed rows of singular and plural forms. The category of the number of nouns is of a lexical and grammatical nature.

Short form of adjectives is inherent only in qualitative adjectives, relative and possessive adjectives do not have a short form. A short adjective answers the questions: what? what? what is it? what are

In modern Russian, short adjectives are formed from full ones. In the singular, generic endings are: for the masculine gender - zero ending (strong - strong, new - new, skinny - skinny, etc.); for the feminine - the ending -a (strong, new, skinny); for the middle gender - the ending -o, -e (strong, new, skinny). There are no gender differences in the plural: all short adjectives end in -s, -i (strong, new, skinny).
Short adjectives do not change by case.
As a rule, in a sentence, short adjectives act as a predicate.

Cardinal numbers- these are numerals that denote abstract numbers (five) and the number of objects (five tables) and answer the question how much ?. Cardinal numbers are whole (five), fractional (five-sevenths) and collective (five). Whole cardinal numbers denote whole numbers or quantities. They combine with countable nouns, i.e. with such nouns that denote objects that can be counted as pieces.

Kapersonal adjectives- these are adjectives that denote such a feature of an object that can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent.

Verb person category expresses the relation of the action performed by the subject to the speaking person. Only present and future tense verbs change according to faces. Past tense verbs do not change by person. Verbs of the present and future tense can have the forms of the first, second and third person as in the singular. So it is in the plural, that is, conjugated verb forms.

Verbal forms of the first person denote an action that the speaker himself performs (alone or together with other persons). Some verbs do not have the first person singular form.

Verbal forms of the second person, as a rule, denote an action that is performed by some second person (in relation to the speaker) or person.

Pronoun (lat. pronomen)- a part of speech that indicates objects, signs, quantity, but does not name them.

Morphology (from other Greek μορφή - “form” and λόγος - “word, teaching”)- a branch of linguistics, the main object of which is the words of natural languages, their significant parts and morphological features. The tasks of morphology, therefore, include the definition of the word as a special linguistic object and the description of its internal structure.

Incomplete sentences- sentences in which any member of the sentence necessary in meaning and structure (main or secondary) is missing. Incomplete can be two-part and one-part, common and non-common sentences.

Uncommon proposal- a sentence that consists only of the main members (subject and predicate).

Intransitive verbs (intransitive) - verbs that cannot carry a direct object, t; e. not combined with the accusative case without a preposition, naming the object to which the action completely passes.

Adverb (the term is formed by tracing paper from the Latin adverbium)- an unchangeable, independent part of speech, denoting a sign of a sign, a sign of an action or quality. The words of this class answer the questions “where?”, “when?”, “where?”, “whence?”, “why?”, “why?”, “how?” and most often refer to verbs and denote a sign of action.

Circumstance- a minor member of the sentence, depending on the predicate and denoting a sign of an action or a sign of another sign. Usually circumstances are expressed by nouns in the forms of indirect cases or adverbs, although some groups of circumstances can be expressed by adverbial turnover. They can also be expressed by an infinitive, a noun in the oblique case with and without a preposition, and even by some phraseological units.

Definition (or attribute)- in syntax, a minor member of a sentence, denoting a sign, quality, property of an object. Usually expressed by an adjective or participle. Answers the questions which?, which?, what?, what? what?, whose?, whose?, whose? whose?.

Relative adjectives denote such a sign of an object that cannot be in the object to a greater or lesser extent.
Relative adjectives do not have a short form, degrees of comparison, do not combine with the adverb very much, do not have antonyms.
Relative adjectives change by case, number and gender (singular).

One-part sentence is a sentence that has only one main member. (or subject, or predicate). Distinguish five types one-part sentences: nominative, definitely personal, indefinitely personal, generalized personal and impersonal.

Name offer - main member - subject. Expressed by a singular noun in the nominative case.

Definitely a personal offer - the main member is the predicate. The doer is not named, but is conceived as a definite person, the predicate is a verb of the 1st and 2nd person of unity. and plurals of indicative and imperative moods.

Indefinite personal offer - the main member is the predicate. The doer is not named and is conceived as an indefinite person, the predicate is a verb of the 3rd person plural of the present, past or future tense.

Generalized personal offer - the main member is the predicate. The agent is not named and is conceived as a generalized image, the predicate is the verb of the 2nd person of unity. and plurals of present or future tense or imperative verb.

impersonal offer - the main member is the predicate. Action and state are not created by the actor.

Predicate -

1) impersonal verb,

2) a personal verb in an impersonal sense,

3) infinitive,

4) invariable verb form NO,

5) communion,

The subject is not implied.

Single unions are unions that are used once. Of the coordinating conjunctions, the union but is typical in this respect.

Homogeneous members of a sentence- the main or secondary members of the sentence, associated in it with the same word form and performing the same syntactic function.

Complicated simple sentence is a sentence that includes some syntactic construction. Moreover, it should not have a grammatical basis.

Sentence (in language)- this is a unit of language, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word), which has a semantic intonation completeness.

Transitivity- property of the verb, which consists in the ability to attach a direct object.

Subject (in syntax)- the main member of the sentence, grammatically independent; denotes the object whose action is expressed by the predicate. The subject names who or what the sentence is talking about, and answers the questions “who?”, “What?”. When parsing a sentence, it is underlined with one line.

Full offer- this is a sentence with all the members that are necessary for the completeness of the structure and meaning.

Pretext- the service part of speech, denoting the relationship between the object and the subject, expressing the syntactic dependence of nouns, pronouns, numerals on other words in phrases and sentences.

Participle- a special form of the verb, which denotes a sign of an object by action and answers the questions of an adjective. It has the properties of both a verb (formed using its root) and an adjective (formed using its ending). The verb signs of the participle are the category of aspect, pledge, as well as a special predicative form of time.

adjoining- one of the varieties of subordinating syntactic connection (along with agreement and control), which does not manifest itself in the condition of the main word of a certain form of the dependent, since the dependent element is invariable, and is expressed only by word order and intonation.

Possessive adjectives - these are adjectives that denote the belonging of an object to a certain person or (less often) to an animal: fathers, sisters, Lysin, etc. The semantic basis of possessive adjectives is an indication of the owner - the individual.

just a suggestion- this is a syntactic unit formed by one syntactic connection between the subject and the predicate or one main member.

direct complement- this is an object expressed by a noun or a pronoun in the accusative case without a preposition.

Punctuation (mid-century lat. punctuatio - from lat. punctum - point)- a system of punctuation marks in the writing of any language, the very rules for their staging in written speech, as well as a section of grammar that studies these rules.

Ordinals- a class of numeral names, denoting the order of objects when counting. In Russian, ordinal numbers have all the grammatical features of relative adjectives.

Order of words in a sentence- this is the relative position of the members of the sentence, which has a syntactic, semantic and stylistic meaning.

Common suggestion- a simple sentence (see), which (unlike a non-extended sentence; see) includes secondary members that explain and clarify the subject, predicate or the sentence as a whole.

Syntax (ancient Greek σύν-ταξις - compilation)- a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of phrases and sentences, and the functional interaction in them of various parts of speech. It is an integral part of grammar. The issues studied within the framework of syntax are closely related to the field of study of morphology.

phrase- these are two or more words related by meaning and grammatically. The grammatical basis (subject + predicate) is not a phrase.

Coordination- one of the three main types of subordinating syntactic connection (along with control and adjacency). It consists in likening the dependent component to the dominant one in the grammatical categories of the same name (in gender, number, case), in which a change in the dominant word entails a corresponding change in the dependent.

Predicate- the main member of the sentence, connected with the subject and answering the questions what does the object (or person) do?, what happens to it?, what is it?, what is it?, who is it? etc. The predicate denotes the action or state of objects and persons by which the subject is expressed.

Union- a service part of speech, with the help of which parts of a complex sentence or homogeneous members of a sentence are connected together. They do not decline or conjugate and are not members of a sentence. They express semantic relations between syntactic units.

Difficult sentence- a sentence that has two or more grammatical bases and represents a semantic unity, formalized intonation. There are 3 types of complex sentences: compound sentence, complex sentence, non-union complex sentence.

Complex sentence (CSP)- a type of complex sentence, which is characterized by division into two main parts: main and subordinate.

Compound sentence (CSP)- a complex sentence with a coordinating connection between its parts. The components of a compound sentence are grammatically independent of each other, that is, they are equal.

Degrees of comparison- the general name of three forms of an adjective or adverb, expressing various degrees of quality inherent in the subject, the name of which is determined by this adjective or adverb.

declination- this is a change in nouns (and other nominal parts of speech) in cases and numbers. All nouns can be divided into seven groups, which will have the same endings (forms) when declensed according to cases and numbers, i.e.

Term (from lat. terminus - limit, border)- a word or phrase that is the name of some concept of some area of ​​science, technology, art, and so on.

Conditional mood (conditional (is.), lat. modus conditionalis)- inclination denoting actions that are desired or possible under certain conditions.

Part of speech (tracing paper from Latin pars orationis, other Greek μέρος τοῦ λόγου)- the category of words of the language, determined by morphological and syntactic features. In the languages ​​of the world, first of all, the name (which can be further divided into a noun, adjective, etc., but this is not universal) and a verb are opposed.

Particle- a service part of speech that introduces various meanings, emotional shades into a sentence or serves to form word forms.

List of used literature

1. Akhmanova O. A. Dictionary of linguistic terms. - 6th ed. - Moscow: Librokom, 2012. - 576 p.

2. Ageenko, F. L. Dictionary of stresses of the Russian language [Text]: 85,500 dictionary units / F. L. Ageenko, M. V. Zarva; ed. M. A. Studiner. - M. : Iris-Press, 2000. - 808 p.

3. Zaliznyak, A. A. Grammatical dictionary of the Russian language. Inflection [Text]: about 110,000 words / A. A. Zaliznyak. - 4th ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Russian dictionaries, 2003. - 795 p.

4. Ivanova V.A., Potikha Z.A., Rozental D.E. Interestingly about the Russian language. - L., 1990.

5. Novikova L. I. Russian language: spelling: textbook. allowance / L. I. Novikova, N. Yu. Solovieva. - M. : RIOR, 2010. - 300 p. - (Professional education)

6. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms - Moscow, 2012

7. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M., 1994

8. Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1985. - 399 p.

Internet resources:

http://www.gramota.ru/

http://www.textologia.ru/