The problem of civilization selection of Russia is associated with a more complex field of problems, which is directly related to the development of human civilization. Basic concepts. Types of civilizations
rTI Fedor Joanovich was extremely dangerous with the autocratic unlimited power. In 1598, the Zemsky Cathedral took place. The exact number of its participants is not known. N.Karamzin wrote about the 500-X, S.Solvyev -476-TI, V.Kestchevsky 512 participants. Modern researchers adhere to the numbers of 600 participants. The composition of the cathedral is wide: boyars, nobles, ordinary, guests (merchants), and all "Khrestyan" representatives. The cathedral spoke for a wedding at the Kingdom of Boris Godunov, who actually already ruled the country.
Boyarskaya Duma gathered separately from the Zemsky Cathedral and called on to swear to the Duma as the Higher Authority. As can be seen, an alternative arose immediately: either choose the king and live still, or swear the Duma and this meant the possibility of changes in public life, given the features of this body. The outcome of the struggle decided the street, who spoken for Boris. Boris Godunov agreed to the kingdom.
It is believed that Boris Godunov belonged to the nobility of Tatar origin. Tatar Tsarevich Chet-Murza was listed in his ancestors. His oprichnina (in a large extent, thanks to the marriage to the daughter of the bloody head of the chicky, Skuratov, the bloody head of the chronic head). As the political figure of Godunov was formed during the time of Ivan the Terrible, in his surroundings. Being more innocent, he managed to advance. Under Tsar Fyor, he was the actual ruler of the country and conducted the same line in politics as Ivan Grozny. The rate was done on servile people (bureaucracy). Nobles received benefits. Barsk spare, unlike the peasant, has not been taxed. There was a "estimate" of the noble lands, that is, exemption from the filings. The majority of ruinage taxes fell on the peasantry. The policy of consolidating and tightening serfdom continued. The peasants lost the right to leave their landowner in the autumn yuriev. To strengthen Moscow as the Orthodox Center, at the initiative of Godunov, in 1589 the Patriarchate was established. The Russian Orthodox Church, which had the actual independence from Constantinople from the time of the fall of Byzantium, now or legally it issued. It seemed that the choice of Godunov to the kingdom was predetermined in the same bed. However, becoming a king, he chose other priorities.
Godunov showed a living interest in science, to the success of Western civilization. For the sake of promoting trade with the West, he fired the generous maidities of German merchants, once resettled on Russia from the world's conquered by Livonian cities. They received big loans from the treasury and permission to move freely both inside the country and beyond. For residents of the German settlement in Moscow, Kirch again opened in Cuka. With Boris, Western Inogenners in Moscow there were more than ever before. He loved the society of Western Medikov and talked for a long time with them about orders in Europe. He went down so far in his sympathies to the West, which formed his personal guard (bodyguard squad) from Mercenaries-Germans.
Godunov was the first of the Russian rulers to send several noble "robbing" abroad "for science of different languages \u200b\u200band (learning - hp) certificates" "8. With it, the authorities showed care for the spread of a typography. In many cities, a typography was opened. He Inged institution plans in Russia and even universities in European samples. Much attention was paid to cities. They were tuned, first of all, Moscow. In the Kremlin, an unprecedented technical innovation appeared - a water supply. Cities turned into culprit foci, trade was actively developed. The clook the most important The proceeding rate of his policies.
However, his policies were very moderate and not consistent. This is rather a trend. However, even the declared fully implemented could not be implemented. The corporate structure of society, which restrained the process of social mobility, changes, remained in an inviolable. The power was still dealing with corporate associations, and not with citizens. His innovations concerned the urban population, which was no more than 2%. As for the bulk of the population - the peasants, Boris's policies did not bring them anything new. The nobles strengthened the operation of the peasants in their estates. The peasants rebelled, killed landowners, fled to the outskirts. The development went slowly, the position of most people was poor. At the beginning of the XVII century. Agriculture declined, natural disasters were added to this. In 1601, terrible hunger broke out, which lasted three years. According to foreign ambassadors, only more than 120 thousand people who died from hunger were buried only in Moscow. Contemporaries reported that in three hungry years "a third of the Moscow kingdom" died out. " In difficult conditions, the power went to some relaxation: It was restored by Yuriev Day, a razdening of bread hungry was organized. But it did not save. In 1603, the uprisings were massive.
Assessing the short reign of Godunov (seven years), it should also be borne in mind that he was deeply religious and his religiosity intensified as health deterioration. Naturally, it blocked the transition to the secular state, without which it was impossible to accelerate development. Despite the said, some historians believe that if at the disposal of Boris Godunov, there were several peaceful years, then perhaps the reforms that we associate with the name Peter I would have been held a hundred years before, but this did not happen. Tsar Boris died in 1605. Thus, the possibility of controlled transformations in society was not implemented. The country stood on the threshold of large-scale civil War,
Stage II Troubles: 1605 - 1609.
At this stage, the country plunged into the bunch of civil war, there was a decay of the state. Moscow lost the significance of the political center. In addition to the old capital, new, "thieves" appeared:
Putivl, Starodub, Tushino. The intervention of Western countries attracted by the weakness of the state began. Sweden and Poland rapidly moved into the departure of the Russian state. State power was in paralysis. In Moscow, as in Kaleidoscope, the authorities were replaced by: Lhadmitry I, Vasily Shuisky, Boyarskaya Duma, whose board entered the history called "Semiboyarschina" However, their power was Efemerne. Sitted in Tushino, Lhadmitry II controlled almost half edge. Many cities and lands have tried to confront decay and foreign intervention. Novgorod, Astrakhan, was separated from the state, Kazan scared. Under these conditions, the traditions of direct democracy were strengthened. The election was widely applied, the collective organization of the field leadership,
On the eg stage, the possibility of Europeanization of Russia is associated with the name of Falsenedmitria I. In 1603, a person appeared at the limits of the Commonwealth, called the name of the son of Ivan IV Dmitry, who had already been considered killed for twelve years. He secretly accepted Catholicism and focused on the west. In Russia, it was announced that under this name there is a runaway monk of the miracle of the monastery Grigory Freakov. The exact evidence that this is exactly that, no, but still most experts consider this version reliable. In 1604, Lhadmitryy I invaded Russia. He promised to the Polish king and some Polish magnames of significant territories in Russia for military support. However, under his banners there were only about two thousand mercenaries. With failure, these army ran away. The situation in the country contributed to the success of his campaign. The uprisings shocked Russia. Often the Cossacks and the Poshesky people handed over the city of impostor without a fight and poured into his armed forces. Spent in the highest layers of the society after the death of Godunov facilitated the promotion of Falgestmitria I to Moscow.
In Moscow, Lhadmitriy I was recognized as the real son of Ivan IV and was crowned in the summer of 1605. Together with him was crowned, who came from Poland, Aristocrat Marina Mnishek, which concern to become his wife to gain the royal crown. Once in the Kremlin, Lhadmitriy I dismissed his army and as if forgot about promises. Droping in Poland. Before him was the problem of organizing the country management, stop the decay. What Lhadmitry 1 considered paramountainly important? First of all, the waters in the country of law and order and justice, the fight against the bureaucracy and corruption of officials. He forbade bribes in orders, said that twice a week, on Wednesday and on Saturday, will personally take complaints from the population in the Kremlin. Opinions are expressed that Lhadmitry I intended to free the peasants from the serfdom. He pondered the processes of the institutions in Russia of the Academy and schools. The impostor introduced freedom of trade, unprecedented in the Moscow state. He removed the bans on the game in chess, maps, at dance and songs. Attempts were made to Raw Dogmatic Russian Orthodoxy. He spoke in conversations " You deliver a piety only in keeping posts, worship my relics, honor the icons, and you have no idea about the essence of faith ... "19. He preached the freedom of conscience. Lhadmitry 1 emphasized the superiority of Europeans over Russians, mocked Russian prejudices, wore An ingenic dress, surrounded by foreigners. He reinforced the boyars as people who were unrelated and uneducated, offered them to go to the land in order to learn something. Known russian historian N.I. Kostomarov wrote about Lhadmitriya I: "He spoke with Russian vote of freedom, the label opened the boundaries before the closed state and for the foreigners entering it, and for the Russians left him, declared full guidance, provided freedom of religious conscience; all this should It was to master the Russians with new concepts, indicated them for a different life "20
Deeply religious society, focused on monastic ideals, was shocked by new orders. In the Kremlin between the cathedrals played 68 musicians all day, on the arrival of Marina Mnishek rushed luxury balls with dancing. Lhadmitry I did not have a clear political program, but tried one
At the beginning of the XII century. Old Russian state Entered into a new stage of its development. Rus broke into a number of independent cities and regions. In historical literature, this stage was called period of feudal fragmentation and lasted withXII. byXIV in.
Feudal fragmentation was not purely Russian phenomenon. Empire Charles Great was the basis of three future Western European states - France, Germany and Italy. Decay feudal states It was a natural process EC. and politics. Strengthening individual lands, internal development and external security of which could not provide old government institutions. Feudal fragmentation gradually replaced by the formation of centralized states.
In the ancient Russian state after the death of Yaroslav Wise (1054), a section of the territory between the five sons and grandson occurred. However, this did not prevent collisions between the descendants of the famous prince. Each of them sought to gain autonomy and be independent of the grand mining power. In 1097, the Princely Congress was gathered in Lisher, where it was decided that every princely family would hearly own their lands. But after the congress, internecine wars did not stop. The grandchildren of Yaroslav Wise Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav managed to stop gravestics for a while, restore the unity of the Russian state. But with the death of Mstislav (1132), there was something that the chronicle says: "the entire Russian land is abundant."
What were the causes of the fact that Kievan Rus broke up into a plurality of lands? First Of these, the further improvement of feudal relations, strengthening local centers. The entire previous story of Rus contributed to their political and economic strengthening. They had to think about the management themselves. Local standards were published, culture developed, the chronicles were carried out, their bishops appeared in the cities and principalities. The inconstancy and weakness of the local prince of power strengthened the role of boyar. The central authorities were not under the power to unite the economic life of all lands.
Second The reason was the change in the foreign economic conditions of Kiev, contributing to the fall of his authority as a capital city. In x in. Prince Svyatoslav destroyed the capital of the Khazar Kaganata, opening the way through which the hostile Turkic tribes (Pechenegs, Polovtsy) were hung in the Black Sea Steppes. Hiking against Polovtsy had little success. In addition, in 1204, During the fourth crusade, Constantinople was looted, and the Christian states of the West opened for navigation Mediterranean Sea. The path of "Varyag in the Greeks" lost its meaning. Reducing trade, constant raids of nomads, princely intersublies led to the decline of Kiev. The population of Kiev and the river strip on the Middle Dnieper and his tributaries went to safe place to the West and the northeast.
An important role in the emergence of fragmentation played a female between Yaroslavlovichi and their sons. Russian historian N.M. Karamzin precisely this circumstance gives priority.
Thus, during the period of feudal fragmentation, instead of a single state, sovereign principalities began to live. In the middle of the XII century. They were 15, and at the beginning of the XIII century. - About 50.
What was the Russian statehood in the CP-HSH centuries??
In the period of feudal fragmentation, economic ties have survived, religion and culture remained. The new structure of the feudal organization was more adapted to the needs of the progressive layer of the feudal layer.
Independent principalities began to be called land And by territorial scale were equal to the Western European kingdoms. They conducted their own foreign policy, concluded contracts with foreign states, etc. The title of the Grand Prince was now not only Kiev, but also the princes of other Russian lands.
Among the many sovereign cities and principalities By the XII - the beginning of the XIII century. in Russia formed three political centerswhich provided a decisive influence on the life of neighboring lands. For South and South-Western Russia, it was the Galician-Volyn Principality, for the Northeast and Western land - Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, for the North-West - Novgorod Earth.
Novgorod He was the center of a huge territory, which extended from the Finnish bay in the West to the Urals in the East. Under his power there were land along the coast of the White Sea to the Arctic Ocean. The main classes of the inhabitants were trade and fishing - Hunting, fisheries, Bortnovnia. With the development of fishers, the development of the Novgorod Northern and Ural Land is associated with the development of the North and Priural land, from where they received the Faper, wax, pearls, the walructible bone, which enjoyed special demand in international markets. Novgorod led successful trading with France, Italy, Byzantia, Khiva, Volga Bulgaria, Bukharoy. Exported skin, valuable fur, fish and firing fat, resin, stroke forest. Novgorod residents received cloth, dear wines, colored and noble metals. Internal trade was actively conducted, which was confirmed by the formation of the Tver, Pskov, Smolensky and Polovtsian merchant coupes. Thus, a fairly developed trade in trade was a characteristic distinctive feature of Novgorod. At the same time, Novgorod was significantly different from other Russian lands with their political structure. it there was a feudal republicAnalogs of which Russian history did not know. Only in the XIV century. (i.e., two centuries later) the Republic, such as Novgorod, will be Pskov, which was part of the Novgorod land before this time.
Previously, other Novgorod refused to pay tribute to the Kiev Prince (1015) and began to conduct an independent policy. None of the princely clans managed to consolidate in Novgorod, there was never any princely dynasty. Prince Invited to perform the function of the military personnel. In addition, he represented the interests of Novgorod in other principalities, possessed the highest judicial authority. Prince's rights stipulated in the contract concluded between him and the city, which gave the opportunity to limit the victim of the princely power. The prince and his squad did not have land ownership and in Novgorod did not hold for a long time (during 1095-1304. Princely power changed 58 times). How the rule, the reason for the expulsion of this or that prince from the city was, according to Novgorod, the excess of their powers On the throne of the Great Novgorod.
The highest authority was vese. It solved the issues of war and the world, performed the functions of the Supreme Court, concluded contracts with princes, chose officials - landangen, a thousandth, archbishop. At the moment, there are two points of view in historical science regarding the composition of the Novgorod Wern. According to one of them, all the free men's population of the city took part in it, the other talks about the evening as a meeting of the city aristocracy, where the boyars and wealthy merchants were. Landing As a senior official and playing the role of an intermediary between Novgorod and the invited prince, managed management and court. This position was held by representatives of the most notable and powerful boyars gods. Thousands He conducted trade affairs, carried out a police supervision, and in wartime he headed the militia. Archbishop.not only was the head of the Novgorod Church, but also played a significant role in secular affairs. He was the keeper of the state treasury, together with the Postener and Muscor, fastened its printing of Novgorod international agreements, led control over the standards of measures and weights and even had his own regiment.
Thus, Novgorod was managed by elected authorities, which represented the small "top" of the population. At the same time, it should be noted that ordinary residents ("black people") also took part in the political life of the city, participating in the novels of the "ends" (districts) and streets, where the ends of the ends and streets were elected.
So, evening Novgorod was a boyars feudal republic. It developed by analogy with some cities-states of Western Europe.
It should also be said that Novgorod remained a powerful military fortress on the northern borders of the country. In the XIII century. In the north-western borders, a dangerous opponent appeared - a hiker, who, mastering the territory of Estonian and Lithuanian tribes, invaded Russian lands. Expansion was accompanied by the distribution of land by German feudalists and the violent appeal of the local population in Catholicism. In 1237, the two knightly orders - monitor and Teutonic - united for further conquering campaigns. The organization of removal of this aggression successfully implemented Novgorod land. In this confrontation, a special role belonged to the prince Alexander Yaroslavovich, who was contacted at this time in Novgorod, whose name became right one of the great in Russian history (Alexander Nevsky).
The fight against the claims of Rome on the Orthodox population also led Galico-Volyn Principality. This is the principality, being the "outskirts" of the Russian world, was between the militant neighbors - Hungary and Poland, who undertake permanent attempts to seize him, and sometimes they were able to see it because of the permanent boyars.
In general, with the weakening of "Mati Cities of Rusk" - Kiev Galico-Volyn Principality began to play a significant role. According to the big authority of this land, for example, the fact that it was from the Galician-Volyn Prince was looking for a shelter Byzantine Emperor Alexey III Angel, driven by crusaders from Constantinople in 1204. A favorable geographical position contributed to the political and economic development of the principality. Due to the fall of the international role of the famous path "From Varyag in Greeks", trade moved to Galician lands. The greatest flourishing accounted for the Board of Prince Daniel (1221-1264). He led the fight against boyars and princes, who opposed his politics, sought to establish an aristocratic rule, similar to what was in Poland and Hungary. At the same time, it should be noted that not all the boyars opposed the prince, since many boyars circles were interested in establishing a strong princely power. Daniel has shuting his principality, he put a lot of strength on the organization of Enemies Rus during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. After his death, the boyars of civilians resumed than the Lithuanian principality and Poland took advantage of the Galico-Volynsky and others. Russian lands to their territory. In the Grand Duch of the Lithuanian, which formed in the XIII century, the Russian principalities were in the period of the heyday 9/10 of all its lands and developed in accordance with their tradition. In the XIV-XVI centuries. On the territory of the Russian lands who joined the Great Principality of Lithuanian and for a long time under politics. and cultures. influence of Lithuania and Poland, ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities began to form.
Unlike Galico-Volyn land, Vladimir-Suzdal Principality There were far from international trade routes. It occupied a huge space in the Volga-Occarrocheus. Gradually, its borders spread far to the north - to Northern Dvina and the White Sea. The territory of the principality was covered with forests, swamps, rivers. By virtue of the above-mentioned geographical features, the main direction of economic activity was agriculture and utility forests. In Northeast Russia, agricultural population and artisans prevailed. Between the princely power and the population, there were other relations here than in Kievan Rus. This was due to the fact that in Kievan Rus, Novgorod, the princely authority came already on the populated land, and this determined the relationship to her community: the prince was necessary for organizing defense from external enemies and internal order protection. In Northeast Rus, on the contrary, the settlement of the colonists took place on the initiative of the princely power already existing here. The princess belonged to the Earth almost not populated, which gave him unlimited power. Revenues it was compiled from the products obtained from the exploitation of the work of the Kolas and the poor who worked on his personal lands. Film lands of the black-made peasantry also gave income to the princely treasury. There were part-owner lands of Boyar and Monasteries. While in the Kiev Rus, the princes owned the land together and passed it on seniority, in the Vladimiro-Suzdal principality of the Earth, they were given in behalf of the Father to the sons inherited and divided equally. This principle of ordinary Russian law remained long enough, which subsequently led to the crushing of Northeast Rus to the gradually smallest dots, to the depletion of princes, the fall of their political authority, weakened the feelings of solidarity. But there were other consequences of these orders. The accumulation of land becomes the necessary element of the princely authority. Living conditions, upbringing have formed special features of the nature of the rulers of this region. If the main feature of the ruler of the Kiev Rusi was a military prowess, then in northeastern Russia, she had to be combined with the ability to make pretty and wisely. Lack of political restrictions created ploud-loving character self-container. All the Earth he considered as his property.Such a worldview has become the basis of ideas about their role in the state for all future rulers. Yuri Dolgoruky (1090-1157) made a lot for the heyday of his edge: built cities, villages, monasteries, churches. The population attracted generous awards and exemption from tax. The prince's foreign policy was mainly carried out in three directions: Wars with Volzh Bulgaria, hiking to Novgorod and the struggle for Kiev. The main meaning of his life Yuri Dolgoruky saw in the class of the grand mining throne. Having achieved his goal and becoming the Grand Duke of Kiev, he set his eldest son Andrei (later called Bogolyubsky) to pronounce in Vyshgorod near Kiev. But Andrei, who lived half of his life in Suzdal Earth, not asking his father, gone north, capturing a Greek miraculous icon of the Mother of God (since then, Vladimir God's Mother has become a symbol of the Rostov-Suzdal Principality, as opposed to Hagia Sophia - a symbol of Kiev and Novgorod) . He strongly sought to equip and elevate his northern possessions. And when he won the grand permanent throne, he did not go to Kiev, and planted his brothers there. And the rules himself from Vladimir, who suffered the capital of Russia. Prince made unsuccessful attempts to subordinate Novgorod. Andrei Bogolyubsky was a tough ruler, led to fighting the boyars and princes and died as a result of a conspiracy in 1174.
After a short internecial war, the grand-road throne took Vsevolod Yuryevich in Vladimir a big nest. He received his nickname for the fact that on all the thrones of northeastern Russia (except Ryazan) planted his descendants. He continued the politics of Andrei Bogolyubsky - I sought to attach as much lands as possible. During the reign of Vsevolod Yuryevich (1176-1212) Vladimir Principality becomes one of the largest states in Europe. The prince's support was the townspeople and a new social layer - a nobility that received or any fee, or the land in temporary ownership.
Thus, Northeast Russia continued policies to the same methods as Kievan. But to overcome the tendency to feudal fragmentation could not: she broke up into seven equal princes led by Vladimir.
"Western Europe and Kievan Rus in the period of feudal fragmentation"
(13 - 15 centuries)
1. Value 3.
2. Blobal selection: Northeast Rus, Novgorod land, Western Russian principality. four
a.prichina and fragmentation factors
b. Education of new state centers
Vladimiro - Suzdal Earth
Galitsko - Volyn Principality
Novgorod land
but. The formation of Mongolian powers
b. "Batievo Finding" on Rus
in. Fighting Western Conquerors
4. The effect of the Golden Horde on the development of medieval Russia. 21.
5. Conclusion 25.
1. Introduction
The topic of the history of ancient Russia seems to be considered in the work not only interesting, but also very relevant. Recent years passed under the sign of change in many areas of the life of Russians. The lifestyle of many people has changed, the system of life values \u200b\u200bhas changed. Knowledge of the history of Russia, the spiritual traditions of the Russian people, is very important to increase the national self-consciousness of Russians. A sign of the revival of the nation is and increasing interest in the historical past of the Russian people, to its spiritual values.
From the beginning of the XII to the end of the XV century. According to tradition, they call the specific period. And indeed, on the basis of Kievan Rus, approximately 15 principalities and lands for the middle of the XII century, about 50 principalities at the beginning of the XIII century, approximately 250 - XIV century.
The territory of the Kiev state focused around several political centers of once former tribal. In the second half of the XI - early XII century. Within Kiev, Russia began to form quite sustainable principalities. As a result of the merger of East Slavic tribes in the period of Kievan Russia, ancient Russian nationality was gradually formed, for which the well-known common language, territory and mental warehouse was characterized, manifested in community culture.
Ancient Russian state was one of the largest European states. Rusi's struggle with nomad raids was of great importance for the safety of countries as anterior Asia and Europe. Widely trade relations between Russia. Rus supported political, trade and cultural relations with the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria, had diplomatic relations with Byzantium, Germany, Norway and Sweden, also established ties with France and England. On the international meaning of Russia, dynastic marriages concluded by Russian princes. Contracts with Byzantium are stored by valuable certificates of social relations in Kievan Rus and its international meaning.
However, already in the XII century. A number of principalities separated from the ancient Russian state.
The main purpose of this work is to analyze the significance of the period of feudal fragmentation in the history of Russia. To identify the causes and factors of fragmentation of ancient Russia, which entailed the creation of new state centers, consider the largest of these centers. What the importance of Russia's resistance to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the reflection of the aggression of Swedish-German faeodals from the point of view of world history. As the Mongolian IHO affected the economic and political development of Russia.
2. The problem of civilized selection: Northeast Russia, Novgorod land, Western Russian principalities.
but. Causes and fragmentation factors
By the middle of the XI century. The ancient Russian state has reached its heyday. Sometimes Kievan Rus is called even an early refortel monarchy. Over the time of the Unified State, the United States of the Kiev Prince, has not yet become. According to the generally accepted point of view from the middle of the XI - early XII century. The ancient Russian state entered into a new stage of its history - the era of political feudal fragmentation. Political crushing is a natural stage in the development of statehood and feudal relations. It was not avoided by no early referring state in Europe. Everywhere in this era, the power of the monarch was weak, and the function of the state is insignificant. The trend towards the cohesion and centralization of states began to manifest itself only in the XIII-XV centuries.
The political crushing of the state had many objective reasons. The economic cause of political fragmentation was, according to historians, in the domination of the natural economy. Trade ties in the XI-XII centuries. Were developed enough weakly, and could not provide the economic unity of Russian lands. By this time, once mighty Byzantine Empire Began to fall into decay. Byzantium ceased to be the World Trade Center, and therefore, the main ancient path of "Varyag in Greeks" has lost its importance, which for many centuries allowed the Kiev state to carry out trade connections.
Another reason for the political decay was the remnants of a tribal relationship. After all, Kievan Rus united several dozen major tribal unions. A significant role was played by constant raids of nomads to the Dnieper lands. Saved from the raids, people went to live in small-populated lands located in the North-East of Russia. Continuous migration contributed to the expansion of the territory and weakening the authorities of the Kiev Prince. The process of continuous crushing of the country could affect the lack of Majorate's concept in the Russian feudal right. This principle, existed in many Western European states, provided that all land owners of this or that feudal passed only to the eldest of their sons. In Russia, land ownership after the death of the prince could share between all the heirs.
One of the most important factors that generated feudal fragmentation, most modern historians consider the development of large private feudal land tenure. Back in the XI century There is a process of "settlement of mans on Earth", the appearance of large feudal victches - boyars villages. Princes became less mobile, they sought to strengthen their own principalities, and not go to the new princely table. The class of feudalists acquires economic and political power. The presence of a large number of large and medium feudal possessions became incompatible with the early refortel state, which had a huge territory and a weak state apparatus.
The growth of the population and, accordingly, the military potential of various regions of Russia became the basis for the formation of a number of sovereign principalities. Played a role in the occurrence of fragmentation and a transplantent female.
The gradual growth of cities, trade and economic development of individual lands led to the loss of Kiev a historical role in connection with the movement of trade routes and the emergence of new craft centers and trade, increasingly independent of the capital of the Russian state.
There was a complication of the social structure of society, the birth of the nobility.
Finally, the collapse of a single state contributed to the absence of a serious external threat to all Eastern Slavic community. Later, this threat appeared on the part of the Mongols, but the process of separation of the principalities came to that time already too far.
Really, these processes appeared in the middle of the second half of the XI century. Prince Yaroslav Wise shortly before his death (1054) divided the lands between the five sons. But he did it so that the ownership of sons mutually separated each other; They were practically impossible to manage them. Yaroslav tried to solve two problems at once: on the one hand, he sought to avoid the bloody gods between the heirs, usually started after the death of the Kiev Prince: each sons received land that had to ensure its existence as a dominal prince; On the other hand, Yaroslav hoped that his children would be together to defend the community interests related primarily to the defense borders. Grand Duke It was not going to divide the one Russia for independent, independent states; He calculated only that now it, as one whole, will be managed not one person, but the entire princely genus.
It is not quite clear how precisely the subordination of various land Kiev was ensured, as these lands were distributed between princes. Described by still historians of the XIX century. The principle of gradual (alternately) movement of the princes from one throne on the other was rather the ideal scheme than the practically functioning mechanism.
CM. Solovyov, analyzing the political structure of Russia after Yaroslav Wise (1019-1054), came to the conclusion that the submissible princes of the Earth did not crush into individual possessions, but were considered as the common herine of the whole type of Yaroslavich. Princes received in temporary management any part of this general ownership is the better than the "older" one or another prince was considered. The seniority, according to the plan of Yaroslav, was to be determined as follows: all his brothers went for the ownership of Kiev Great Prince; After their death, their elder sons inherited father's places in the Renice of Prince, gradually moving away from the less prestigious thrones to more significant. At the same time, only those princes could apply for the title of the Grand Duke, whose fathers managed to visit the metropolitan prince. If some prince died before it was the turn of his turn to take the throne in Kiev, then his descendants were deprived of the right to this throne and the printed somewhere in the province.
Such a system of "solicing ascent" - "the next order" of inheritance was very far from perfection and gave rise to permanent distribution between the brothers and children of the princes (the eldest son of the Grand Duke could take the father's throne only after the death of all his unlisters). Disputes about seniority between uncle and nephews were frequent phenomenon in Russia and at a later period, while in the XV century. There was not established the procedure for the transfer of power from the Father to the Son.
With each convenient case, Yaroslavichi struggled to break the order - of course, with benefit for themselves or their closest relatives, allies. "Largechair" was not viable; Inherited tangled inheritance procedure was a reason for frequent assholes, and the dissatisfaction with the princes, excluded from the queue for power, led to the fact that they were asked for help to the Hungarians, Poles, Polovtsy.
Thus, from the 50s. XI century It was the process of determining the boundaries of future independent lands. Kiev became the first among the principalities. Soon, the other lands caught up and even ahead of their development. One and a half dozen independent principalities and lands, the boundaries of which were formed within the framework of the Kiev Power as the frontiers of the lots, volosts where local dynasties were ruled.
As a result of crushing, the principality of the principality was distinguished as independent, the names of Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal, Smolensk, Galitsky, Volynskoye, Polotsk, Town, Novgorod and Pskov land. In each of the land, the rule of its dynasty is one of the branches of Rurikovich. The new form of a state-political organization was political fragmentation, replacing the early refortion monarchy.
IN 1097 At the initiative of the grandson of Yaroslav Pereyaslav Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, the Congress of Princes was gathered in the city of Lyubech. On it was established a new principle of organization of power in Russia - "Everyone keeps his father." Thus, the Russian land has ceased to be a cumulative possession of a whole kind. The possessions of each branch of this kind - heredge - became its hereditary property. This decision fastened feudal fragmentation. Only later, when Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) became the Grand Duke of Kiev, as well as with his son Mstislava (1126-1132), the state unity of Russia was restored for a while. Rus kept relative political unity.
The beginning of the period of fragmentation (and political, and feudal) should be considered from 1132. However, Russia was ready for decay for a long time (not by chance V.O. Klyuchevsky determines the beginning of the "specific period", i.e. The period of independence of Russian principalities, not from 1132, and from 1054, when Yaroslav Wise Rus was divided between his children). FROM1132 The princes ceased to be reckoned with the Grand Duke Kiev as the head of All Russia.
The disintegration of the ancient Russian state did not destroy the emerging ancient Russian nation. Art historians and historians note that the spiritual life of various Russian lands and principalities with all its diversity preserved common features and unity of styles. Cities grew and built centers of newly emerged princesses. Trade developed, which led to the emergence of new communication paths. The most important trading routes were held from Oz. Ilmen and r. Western Dvina to the Dnieper, from the Neva to the Volga, the Dnieper also connected with the Volga-Occarrement.
Thus, the specific period should not be considered as a step back in Russian history. However, the incessant process of political crushing of land, numerous princely gravestics weakened the country's defense capability before the external danger.
b. Education of new state centers
Some modern historians, the term "feudal fragmentation" is not used for the characteristics of the processes that took place in the Russian lands at the end of the beginningXII century. The main cause of Rus fragmentation they see in the formation of cities. SuperSuz, headed by Kiev collapsed into a number of cities - states, which, in turn, became landlocked centers arising in the territories of previous tribal unions. According to these views, Rus entered during the existence of autonomous community unions who took the form of state cities.
The principalities and land of Russia's share were fully established states comparable in the territory with European. Kiev, who suffered from raids of nomads and princely gravity, gradually lost its meaning. And although for almost the whole XII century. In tradition, it was continued to look at him as the main city of Russia, he actually turned into the capital of the small Kiev principality located in the middleprovier. Most important At the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. acquire Vladimiro - Suzdal and Galitsky-Volyn Principality, as well as the Novgorod land, which became political centers, respectively, the North-Eastern, southeast and North-West Rus. In each of them there is a kind of political system: the princely monarchy in Vladimir - Suzdal Land, the Prince of Boyarskaya monarchy in the Galician-Volyn and Boyar Republic in Novgorod.
Vladimiro (Rostov) - Suzdal Earth
An important role in the political life of Russia was played by Vladimiro - Suzdal Earth. At the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. She covered huge spaces in the Okey and Volga interfluid. This territory is considered to be now the center of Russia, a thousand years ago was completely small. In antiquity, the Finno-Ugric tribes lived here, afterwards almost completely assimilated by the Slavs. The growth of the population of Kievan Rus aroused the need to master new territories. In the XI - XII centuries. The southern frontiers of the states were constantly subjected to nomad raids. At this time, the intensive movement of Slavic immigrants in the North-Eastern region begins. The center of newly developed land becomes Rostov.
The main factors affecting the formation of a rich and powerful principality:
remoteness from steppe nomads in the south;
landscape obstacles to easy penetration of cooks from the north;
the possession of the Werish Arteries (Volga, Oka), through which rich Novgorod merchant caravans went; good opportunities for economic development;
significant emigration from the south (the inflow of the population);
developed since the XI century. Network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.);
very vigorous and ambitious princes, who headed the principality.
There was a direct relationship between the geographical characteristics of Northeast Russia and the formation of a strong princely power. This region was mastered at the initiative of the princes. The lands were considered as Prince's property, and the population, including boyars, as his servants. Vassal - a friendly relationship, characteristic of the period of Kiev Rus, was changed by princelessly. As a result, in North-Eastern Russia there was a patrimonial system of power. (Appendix 1, Scheme 1)
With the formation and development of the Vladimir - Suzdal Principality, the names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157), who distinguished his desire to expand its territory and subordinate to Kiev (for it he received a nickname. He captured Kiev and became the Grand Duke of Kiev; Actively influenced the politics of Novgorod the Great. Under the influence of Rostov-Suzdal Princes, Ryazan and Murom fell. Yuri led the widespread construction of fortified cities on the borders of his principality. Under1147 In the chronicle, first mentioned in Moscow, built on the site of the former manor of the boyar bunch confiscated by Yuri Dolgorukov. Here is April 4.1147 The negotiations of Yuri with Chernigov Prince Svyatoslav, brought Yuri as a gift to the skin of Barca.
Son and successor Yuri - Andrey Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), called so for a significant support for the church, the association of Russian lands and transfer the center of all Russian political life from a rich boyars of Rostov first in a small town, and then built up with an unprecedented speed Vladimir - Claus. Inmploitable white gates were built, an Majestic Assumption Cathedral was erected. In the country residence of Bogolyubovo dark July night1174. Andrei was killed as a result of the Boyar conspiracy, headed by the boyars of Kuchkovichi, the former owners of Moscow.
The policy of uniting all Russian lands under the rule of one prince continued the summand of Andrei - Vsevolod is a large nest (1176-1212), called so for his big family. With it, there was a significant strengthening of the Vladimiro-Suzdal Principality, which became the strongest in Russia and one of the largest feudal states in Europe, the core of the future of the Moscow state.
Vsevolod influenced the policy of Novgorod, got a rich shipyard in the Kiev region, almost fully disposed of Ryazan principality, etc. After completing the fight against the boyars, he finally established the monarchy in the principality. By this time, the nobility becomes supporting the princely power. It was served, military, yard people, servants who depended from the prince and received the land for temporary use, a monetary fee or the right to collect princely income.
The economic rise of Vladimiro-Suzdal Principality continued for some time with the sons of Vsevolod. However, at the beginning of the XIII century. There is his disintegration on the dots: Vladimir, Yaroslavsky, Uglich, Pereyaslavsky, Yuryevsky, Muromsky. Principality of North-Eastern Russia in the XIV-XV centuries. became the basis of the formation of the Moscow state.
Galitsko - Volyn Principality
Galitsky and Volyn Principality were formed in the southwest of Russia. They occupied the northeast slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the Dniester and Prut. (Appendix 2, Scheme 2).
Features and conditions of development:
fertile lands for agriculture and extensive forest arrays for commercial activity;
significant deposits of the stone salt, which was taken into neighboring countries;
convenient geographical position (Neighborhood with Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic), which allowed to lead an active foreign trade;
in relative security from the nomads of the land of the principality;
the presence of an influential local boyars that led the struggle for power is not only among themselves, but also with princes.
Galician principality increased significantly to the Board of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187). His successor - Volyn Prince Roman Mstislavovich - in1199 managed to unite the Volyn and Galitsky Principality. At the beginning of the XIII century, after death in1205 Roman Mstislavovich, in the principality broke out a civil war with the participation of Hungarians and Poles. The son of Roman - Daniel Galitsky (1221-1264) broke the boyars resistance and in1240, taking Kiev, managed to unite the southeast and Kiev land. However, in the same year, Galitsko - the Volyn Principality was broken by Mongol-Tatars, and after 100 years later, these lands were part of Lithuania (Volyn) and Poland (Galich)
Novgorod land
Novgorod land, which occupied the northwestern territory of the former Old Russian state, one of the first began to go out of the power of the Kiev Prince. In the late XI-early XII century. There was a peculiar political education, which in modern historical literature is called the feudal republic. The Novgorod residents themselves called their state beautifully and solemnly - "Mr. Veliky Novgorod". Novgorod possessions stretched from the Gulf of Finland in the West to the Ural Mountains in the East, from the Ice Ocean in the north to the borders of the modern Tver and Moscow region south.
Novgorod land developed on a special path (Appendix 3, Scheme 3):
was far from nomads and did not feel the horror of their raids;
the wealth was in the presence of a huge land foundation in the hands of a local boyars, which grew up from a local tribal nobility;
of his bread in Novgorod, but commercial classes - hunting, fishing, salt and iron production, Bortnovnia - got significant development and gave a boyars not small income;
the elevation of Novgorod contributed an exceptionally advantageous geographical position: the city was at the intersection of trade routes connecting Western Europe with Rus, and through it - with East and Byzantia;
as in the Novgorod, and later in the Pskov Earth (originally part of Novgorod) there was a socio-political system - a boyars republic;
a favorable factor in the fate of Novgorod: he was not exposed to strong Mongol-Tatar plunder, although I paid tribute. Alexander Nevsky (1220-1263) was especially famous for the independence of Novgorod (1220-1263), who not only beat the Natisk of German - Swedish aggression (Nevskaya Battle, Ice Bottom), but also conducted a flexible policy, making concessions to the Golden Horde and organizing resistance to the onset of Catholicism in the West;
The Novgorod Republic was close to the European Type of Development, similar to the cities of the Republics of the Hanseatic Union, as well as the cities of the Republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence)
As a rule, Novgorod owned the princes who held the Kiev throne. This allowed the older to control the great path and dominate the prince among Rurikovich.
Using the dissatisfaction of Novgorod residents (uprising1136), boyars, which possessed a significant economic power, managed to finally defeat the prince in the struggle for power. Novgorod became a boyar republic. In fact, power belonged to a boyars, the highest clergy and the famous merchandise.
All of the highest executive bodies are Posadani (heads of government), the Thousands (heads of the city militia and judge on shopping affairs), the bishop (head of the church, the executive order of the treasury, controlled the foreign policy of the great Novgorod) and others - were replenished from the boyars nobility. At the same time, the highest officials were elected. So, for example, in the second half of the XII century. Novgorod, like no one in the Russian lands, became choosing their spiritual shepherd - Lord (Archbishop of Novgorod).
On this earth earlier than in Europe, reform trends have been manifested in relation to the Church, anticipating European Reformation, and even atheistic moods.
The prince's position was peculiar. He did not have full state power, did not inherit the Novgorod land, but invited only to execute executive and military functions.
Any attempt to intervene in internal affairs inevitably ended with his expulsion (for 200, with a small years, Princes visited 58).
The Rights of the Supreme Authority belonged to the People's Assembly - the eve of extensive powers:
Consideration of the most important issues of internal and foreign policy;
Invitation to Prince and conclusion with him a contract;
Election important for Novgorod trade policy, election of landing, judges on trade affairs, etc.
Along with the citywide evening, Konchansky existed (the city was divided into five districts, and the entire Novgorod land for five regions of Pleas) and the "streets" (uniting residents of the streets) elders. The actual hosts in the evening were 300 "gold belts" - the largest boyars of Novgorod. To the XV century They actually usurp the rights of the people's eve.
in. The value of the fragmentation period in Russian history
For fragmentation, like any historical phenomenon, there are also positive and negative sides. Let's compare Kievan Rus with the Old Russian principalities in the XII-XIII centuries. Kievskaya Rus is a developed subway and Novgorod, surrounded by slightly populated outskirts. In the XII-XIII centuries. The abyss between the centers and the outskirts disappears. The outskirts turn into independent principalities, which in terms of economic, socio-political and cultural development are superior to Kievan Rus. However, a period of fragmentation has a number of negative phenomena:
1) The crushing process took place. With the exception of Veliky Novgorod, all the principalities were crushed into the inner diets, the number of which age from century rose. With the one hand, the resistance of the specific princes and Boyar was constrained by the despotic desire of many senior princes who wanted to submit the lives of entire principalities to their personal ambitious plans. But on the other hand, often the specific princes supported by the specific boyars became defenders of civil workers, they tried to take possession of the older table. Local aristocracy prepared conspiracies, raised methers;
2) endless internecine wars were conducted. Contradictions between senior and younger princes inside one principality, between the princes of independent principalities were often resolved by war. According to calculations S.M.Soloviev, from 10551228 G. In Russia, 93 of the peaceful year had to 80, in which gravestones took place.
Scary were not the battle, but their consequences. The winners burned out and robbed the village and the city, and most importantly - the numerous polons were captured, they turned prisoners to slaves, moved to their lands. So, the grandson of Monomach Izyaslav Kiev1149 led from the Rostov land of his uncle Yuri Dolgoruky 7 thousand people.
3) the military potential of the country as a whole weakened. Despite the attempts to convene the princely congresses, which supported a certain order in fragmented Russia and softened civilians, a weakening of the country's military relics took place.
Western Europe relatively painlessly experienced similar due to the lack of strong external aggression. For Russia, on the eve of the Mongolo Tatar invasion, the fall of defense capability turned out to be fatal.
3. Mongolo - Tatar invasion. Reflection of the aggression of Swedish - German feudalists in the West.
A. Education of the Mongolian Power.
Since the end of the 12th century, the Mongolian tribes, nomadic in the steppes of Central Asia, was the process of decomposition of a tribal building and the formation of early designer relations. Here began to highlight the birthbroken kneading (princes) baags (heroes), surrounded by the vigilannikov - nuker (Nucker in translated). They captured pastures and herds from the communities of pasture and herds. There is a special type of nomadic feudalism, for which, as a number of researchers believes, feudal property is not characterized not to Earth, but on herd and pastures. The formation of a early-grade state occurred here, as is usually in the bloody internecine struggle between different tribes and leaders. During this war, Techucin won the victory, who in Harale (the congress of Mongolian nobility) in 1206 was awarded the honorary title of Genghis Khan, the exact value of which was not yet established. According to one of the largest tribal, the neighboring peoples were often called all the Mongols by these name, it was fixed later in the Russian tradition, although most of the actual Tatar was exterminated by Genghis Khan during the struggle for power.
Conquered part of Siberia, Mongols began to conquer China. They managed to capture his entire northern part, which was of great importance for further conquering policies. It is from China Mongols taken out the latest for that time. military technique and specialists. In addition, from among the Chinese, they received frames of competent and experienced officials.
In 1219, Chingis Khan's troops invaded Central Asia. They captured Samarkand, Bukhara, Khodeven and many other cities. The people had heroic resistance, but feudal tried to die in the invaders. Thus, Uncle Khorezmsha Tugaihan, who headed the garrison of Samarkand, surrendered to the mercy of the winner, which did not save him life. Khorezmshha Mohammed himself could not organize resistance, and his heir to Jellandin suffered a defeat in battle (1221) and escaped the troops with insignificant residues.
Following Central Asia, Northern Iran was captured, after which Chingis Khan's troops made a robbed trip to the Transcaucasus. Here, his commander jebe and subcents acted. From the south they came to the Polovytsky steppes and defeated Polovtsy. Princes Danil Kobyakovich and Yuri Konchakovich died, and Khan Kotyan, the father-in-law of Mstislava deleted, turned to him for help. "Relaim us. And we will not help us, we will now be excised, and you are incense with an inventory, "Polovtsy said.
There is nothing surprising in this appeal. The relationship between Russia and the Polovtsy were not unambiguous. Along with the Polovtsian raids on Russia and the campaigns of Russian princes, there were lively economic, political and cultural relations between the two peoples. Many of the Polovtsy Khans were baptized and rubbed (for example, Yuri Konchakovich and Danil Kobyakovich), some Russian princes married the daughters of Polovtsy Khanov's daughters, the wife of Yuri Dolgoruky was a half. Period starting from the 90s. The 12th century was the time of the full world in the Russian - Polovtsy relations: in these years, Polovtsian trips on Russia are unknown, only the participation of Polovtsy squads in Russian princes interdisodes is mentioned.
Poland's request to help them against a dangerous enemy was adopted by Russian princes. The battle between Russian-Polivovsky and Mongolian troops occurred on May 31, 1223 on the river Kalka in the Azov. However, not all Russian princes, who promised to participate in the battle, put their troops, some were late. The princes - participants in the battle were not uncommon. Kiev Prince Mstislav Romanovich at all stood with his troops aside, watching the squad of other princes in battle. The battle ended with the defeat of Russian-Polovkoy troops, many princes and warriors died, and the winners put on tribal boards, sat on them and staged a solemn feast, enjoying the moans of dying. As a result of this battle, the state of Polovtsy turned out to be destroyed, and the Polovtsy themselves became part of the state created by the Mongols.
In 1227, Genghis Khan died, who traveled to Mongols to conquer the whole earth up to the francs seas in the west, or the "last sea". The main force This conquering campaign was to be a Ulus Juchin of the Senior Son of Genghis Khan. In Ulus, Kagan turned on the whole ground to the west of the YiK River. Juci died shortly before his father 9 had rumored that he was poisoned by order of Genghis Khan). The head of the Western Ulus was the son of Juchi and grandson of Genghis Khan, Batubhan (Bat).
In 1229, Batiya's troops invaded the Northern Caspian Steppes, and in 1232 they made a raid on Volzhari Bulgar, however, success did not achieve. In 1235, Kagan Iegg (the third son of Genghis Khan) created Kurultay, which decided to start a big trip to Europe. For this, one ulus was not enough for this, so the troops of other grandchildren of Genghis Khan were sent to the rescue of Batu. In the fall of 1236, the Mongols ruined the Volga Bulgaria, in the spring of 1237 subordinated to the Mordaw, Bashkir. Cheremsov (Marie) and finally broke the resistance of Alan and the surviving even half in the North Caucasus. After that, the remains of Polovtsy nomads went to the West, where they were dissolved among the peoples of Southeastern Europe. Mongols now preignally dominated east of Russian borders.
b. "Batievo Finding" on Russia.
In December 1237, Mongols entered the limits of the Ryazan Principality. Bate led a huge army. The Russian chronicles and essays of European travelers identified its number in 400 or even 600 thousand people. About 300th thousand troops wrote N.M. Karamzin. Nowadays, however, it has been proven that it was impossible to feed such an army in the Northstast. And it would be stretched in winter roads for hundreds of miles. Modern researchers believe that Tatar was from 30-40 to 120-140 thousand. The first of the figures given is probably underestimated.
What defensive opportunities have Russia? Medieval battle with the use of cold weapons required high mastery. The main role in such a battle was the equestrian squad. Walking urban militia performed auxiliary duties. The peasants were not attracted to the campaigns at all. Gorozham and the feudalists in the Vladimiro-Suzdal land barely numbered 100 thousand. Consequently, the combat-ready men among them were no more than 20-25 thousand people. Novgorod could put a circle of 7-10 thousand people. So, the superiority of the Mongols was significant, especially if we take into account the sprays of the Russian forces.
Baty sent to Ryazan an embassy that demanded a long part in everything: "... in people, and in princes, and in the horses ..." Ryazan princes rejected his caller and sent for help to the Great Prince Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich. Help, however, did not come, because: "Yuri, they themselves do not want, nor loving the princes of Ryazan Moluba, but the desiment itself is a scintion." Razing Ryazan land, Mongols besieged the capital of the Principality.
After the six-day siege and cruel storming Ryazan Pala. The invaders mercilessly dealt with the inhabitants and destroyed the city. Only a small detachment of Ryazantians managed to retreat and connect with the Suzdal Reli, which tried to stop the Mongols under Kolomna. Yuri himself stopped in Vladimir. In the kolomna battle occurred near Kolomna, the Russian army was almost completely destroyed.
True, the Mongols probably suffered serious losses. They had an unshakable rule that not only hani-chingizes, but also military leaders, starting with thousands, led the troops behind the battle orders. They had to show no delete, but the ability to manage the battle. There could be no personal participation of Khan in the attack and speech. As far as the fierce and rapid battle was, if a cousin Batyan Khan Kulkan died in it!
After the victory, the Kolomna Baty took and burned Moscow, interrupted the inhabitants and captured the son of the Grand Prince Vladimir Yurevich. Let's try to put yourself in the place of Yuri Vsevolodovich. How to be? Mongols are approaching Vladimir. Waiting for the enemy in the capital, recking on the fortress surrounding her walls? But they have already taken not enough cities, the walls sooner or later fall ... go out in the field, having accepted an open battle? But the Mongols have a numerical advantage, especially in Connection ...
It was not easy to choose a prince. In the end, he decided to retreat on the River to the Sit (north of the Yaroslavl). The troops of his brother Svyatoslav and the Rostov and Yaroslavl shelves of nephews, the sons of Konstantin, were moved here. Probably the Grand Duke tried to oppose the Baty United Forces of Vladimir-Suzdal Land.
Perhaps he counted that the Mongols would come to the shores of the City weakened after the numerous bloody storms of the city walls. In Vladimir, Prince left his wife and two sons. Hopefully the city will be? Or wanted to instill confidence in the townspeople? This no longer knows no one.
Mongols approached Vladimir on February 3, 1238. Uninstalled by its frequenza, installed the trumpets - "vices". Already on February 6, they managed to break the oak fortress walls, but the defenders beat the onslaught. On the morning of February 7, the decisive assault began. Through the warriors of the warriors collapsed in many places in many places broke into the city. The surviving residents, the clergy, the wife and daughters of the Grand Duke tried to hide in the Assumption Cathedral, but the Mongols broke there and interrupted everyone.
Following the take of Vladimir, Bati ruined and burned a few more cities in Northeast Russia. Then his army was divided. The part moved toward Novgorod and besieged Torzhok, and the rest went to the city. Here on March 4, 1238, the Sword of Evil occurred. Russians were broken. The Grand Duke died, Vasilko Rostovsky was captured and later was executed by Mongols. Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, apparently, did not have time to join the troops of the elder brother. During the day later, on March 5, Pal Torzhok, heroically resisting two weeks before that.
The conquerors continued to go to Novgorod, but, without reaching him about a hundred miles, turned to the south. Why was Novgorod got rid of defeat? Before us is one of the numerous puzzles of Russian history. Mongols were afraid of the spring dishthele, which would make the swampy forests of the North West impassable for the cavalry. By that time, the invaders suffered large losses and feared the resistance of Novgorod. Finally, in Northern Russia, Mongols were convinced that for their nomadic economy, this land is not suitable. They were not going to live here. The forces of Russia are undermined, preventing the campaign to the "Last Sea" she could not. Batya has already reached its main goals, losing people under Novgorod did not make sense.
On the way back, moving with a wide cluster chain, Mongols stumbled upon a small town of Kozelsk and unexpectedly faced with fierce resistance. The city beat off the attack as much as seven weeks! Only by receiving reinforcements and trumpets, the invaders captured Kozelsky. It was not by chance that they called him a "evil city."
By the summer of 1238, the Mongols left Russian lands and returned to the steppe. North-Eastern Rus lay in ruins. How to evaluate what happened? Was the defeat inevitable? Or did Russian princes made irreparable mistakes? Maybe Yuri Vsevolodovich was supposed to help fond of Ryazan? Or maybe, on the contrary, it was necessary to squeeze my teeth and exhaust the enemy, while remaining under the protection of fortresses, not allowing conquerors to solve the outcome of war and one battle? Then a rock error - exit to the bottom. They argued, probably contemporaries, argue and still historians.
In the spring of next year, the invasion resumed. This time the sacrifice was southwestern Russia. In March 1239, South Pereyaslavl was defeated. Early autumn Mongols invaded the Chernigov Principality. Prince Mstislav Glebovich tried to fight under the walls of the city, but was defeated. October 18, 1239 Chernigov fell. Mongolian avant-garde approached Kiev. However, he commanded the best forces Khan Munke, struck by the beauty and the greatness of the ancient capital, did not risk it to storm. He only "sent his ambassadors to Mikhail and to the Grazhan, although they are plenty." Kievans, a lot of heard about the price of Mongolian ambulances, refused to listen to ambassadors. Soon the prince Mikhail, understanding the inevitability of the invasion, fled to Hungary. Briefly delayed in Kiev and Prince Mstislav from Smolensk. Daniel Galitsky, who sent his governor of the Dmitra on the shores of his governor to the shores of his governor to the banks of the Dnieper.
In the fall of 1240, the conquerors of Kiev were besieged by large forces. The chronicle, perhaps with some exaggeration, reports that the Batya's army was so great, "heaven to hear the chairlis from the creaking of his cart, many of the revival and rye, from the state of his herd, and was fulfilled by the Russian land." Mongols surrounded the city and soon destroyed the walls. On December 6, 1240, the fight turned on the streets and squares of Kiev. The last defenders gathered at the Tenty Church. But the church vaults collapsed, without preparing the severity of numerous citizens who were looking for refuge. Kiev fell. Even the winners were admired by the heroism of Kievans. The Dmitr was wounded and captured by the Voivode Dmitr was pardoned by Khan "Majras for His".
The fall of Kiev opened the invaders the way to Western Europe. They were traded by Vladimir-Volyn Galic, defeated many cities in beds. Only the fortresses of the hill and the Kremenets located on impregnable rocks, Mongols preferred to bypass, rushing to the West.
Having entered into the territory of Western Europe, they caused several defeats by the Polish and German knights, won the Hungarians and invaded Croatia and Dalmatia in January 1242, going to the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It seemed that Europe was doomed, as if the times of the Gunnov returned. But fate settled: in a spring of 1242, from the distant eastern capital of Mongols, Karokorum came the news of the death of Kagan Ugepya.
Baty immediately turned back, seeking to influence the election of the new kagan. Perhaps it was not the only reason. Baty could not have enough troops to control all the conquered territories. But the logic of war was all handed it forward. And then the news of the death of the great Khan was seized, a risky campaign to stop the risky campaign for Batiya. Europe was saved. For a new trip to the West, the Mongols have no power no longer found.
in. Fighting Western conquerors.
While the Bate devastated the southwestern Russian lands, Northeast Russia faced with a new danger that was sown this time from the Baltic States.
The southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea from ancient times settled the tribes of the Thro-Finnish Balt Language Groups. The first of these were Esta, and the second ancestors of modern Latvians and Lithuanians. They were engaged in the main forest and marine crafts. Someone already existed arable farming. By the 12th century, the inhabitants of the Baltic were distinguished by the family-tribal leaders, surrounding themselves by squaders and established domination over certain territories. Lithuanian tribes have already begun the formation of the state.
The Baltic lands have long been managing German feudalists, who by that time subjugated to those who lived in the north of the current Poland Pomeranian Slavs. The invasion of German knights in the southeastern Baltic States began after in 1184 in the lands of Livov, a Catholic missionary Monk Meinard, two years later, later erected by Pope in San Archbishop of Livonia. The violent baptism of local residents failed, and Mayanard fled, then Dad organized a crusade against Liv in 1198.
In 1200, the Crusaders led by the monk Albert captured the mouth of Western Dvina. In 1201, Albert founded the Riga Fortress and became the first Riga Archbishop. He was subordinated specially created for the subordination of the Baltic States, the Knight's Order of the Swordsman. In Russia, the swordsmen most often called the Livonian Order or just an order. Having an "true faith" by the sword, the Crusaders did not stop before the merciless extermination of persistent pagans.
The population of the Baltic States desperately resisted the invaders, attacked the castles and cities based on them. His rus helped him, the fear of the offensive of the Crusaders on their lands. However, the struggle was difficult to be lack of unity. The power of Russia could not be fully utilized against the Order Due to the contention between Novgorod and Suzdal princes. Lithuanian princes have repeatedly invaded the Polotsky Earth. A mutual enmity has repeatedly encouraged Lithuanian and Western Russian princes to join temporary agreements with swords.
In 1212, the knights subordinate to the Lionia and began to conquer Estonia, going close to the Novgorod limits. Mstislav deleted during his reign in Novgorod more than once winned over the Livonian detachments. But, as you know, in 1217, he moved to Galich.
In 1224, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich managed to apply defeat under Yuryev. Two years later, in 1226, the swordsmen were broken by the militia of Lithuanians and Zemgalov. Failures forced the Livonian Order to unite with a larger Teutonic Order. This Order was created in 1198 in Syria to continue crusades in Palestine. Soon, however, attempts to win the grain coffin were stopped, and Teutonic knights, moved to Europe, began to prove their zealousness in faith by a safer way, turning into the Catholic faith Western-Lithuanian Prussian tribe. As a result of the "missionary" activity of Prussa, they were divided, and their lands were occupied by the Germans.
The ordinances of the orders significantly increased their power and strengthened the danger to Novgorod for him increasingly acquired the independence of the "suburbs" -paskov. At the same time, the danger from the Swedish and Danish knights, mastered northern Estonia increased.
In 1240, a Swedish squad led by the Swedish detachment led by one of the king's relatives who wears the title of the Yarl. In Novgorod, then the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, 19-year-old Prince Alexander, was contacted. The appearance of the Swedes, apparently, was a surprise to him. In any case, during 1239, Alexander built strengthening on the Shelin River south of Novgorod, waiting, apparently, attacks from this side, from Lithuania, Lithuania, in 1238, united the energetic rule of the Prince Mindovg under his authority, who began the struggle for the expansion of his possessions .
Having received the news of the invasion of the Swedes, Alexander immediately showed himself a decisive and bold warlord. He did not wait for the regiments of his father, the Grand Duke Yaroslav. However, on the ruined northeast, it was not so easy to collect troops. Alexander did not even like to raise all the Novgorod militia, and with one squad and a few warriors-Novgorod camouflages and unexpectedly attacked the Swedish camp.
In the fierce battle, the Swedes were broken and fled. The prince himself met on the battlefield with the Swedish leader and wounded him into the face. The Novgorod chronicler with the usual exaggeration in such cases writes about the enemies, that "many mats of their Pad". It seems that a more loyal idea of \u200b\u200bthe scale of battle gives the chronicler of the Russian losses of Russian losses, 20 people. Hardly there is a reason to see in the actions of the Swedes something more than the usual robbing raid. However, his success could open the road to further concluding actions of Scandinavians.
Alexander's victory prevented the Swedes attempts to entrenched on the banks of the Neva and Lake Ladoga. The name of the prince added the honorary nickname Nevsky.
However, the danger remained. In the same, 1240, the Livonian knights captured an important Pskov Fortress of Izborssum, and then with the help of the treason of landing, captured and Pskov. It is unlikely that the actions of the Swedes and Livonian knights were built according to a single plan agreed with each other and a papal throne. Naturally, crusaders and with Mongols did not affect. But Rus from this was not easy to fight accounted for all enemies at the same time.
Taking Pskov, the troops of the Order invaded Novgorod possession, built a fortress on the site of the Novgorod fortified settlement Coporye. Meanwhile, soon after the battle on the Neva, Alexander raised himself with Novgorod and left to his father in Pereyaslavl. Seeing the strengthening of the German threat, Evening again invited him to the throne. In 1241, Alexander Nevsky beat off the Germans from Germans, and then Pskov, after which they invaded the ownership of Derpto bishop. The advanced detachment of Novgorod was broken by knights. Having learned about it, the prince pulled his strength to the Church of the Lake and took a position on the ice.
On April 5, 1242, the famous Ice Bare took place. Knights, as usual, built a narrow and deep wedge - "pigs". The infantry, consisting of dependent ests, moved inside the equestrian column. Assuming that the Crusaders will try to hit the center of the Russian position, Alexander Nevsky placed in the middle of his troops of Novgorod hiking, protected by heavy milk armor, and on the flankach-horse squad.
The Lithuanians fastened in the center of the standing infantry, but as a result, they were surrounded by the Russian Connection. Her flank strike troops orders could not stand and escape. The April ice crashed and fell under the weight of the riders chained in the lats. Many soldiers of the Order drowned, others were in captivity. The Novgorod chronicle reported that he died "sill without a number, and German 400, and 50 Yasha (captured)". If we consider that all these 450 people were knights, the ice is unprecedented by the grandiose battle. In the largest battles, the Middle Ages died, as a rule, no more than a few dozen knights. However, it is quite obvious that among the "German 400", which fell on the ice of the lake, were not alone knights, but their squire and military servants. After all, the Teutonic and Lithuanian orders together have not much more than a hundred knights. The German Chronicle claims that 25 knights fell in the ice, but these data are probably understood.
However, the value of the battle is not determined by the number of dead. As a result of the victory of Alexander Nevsky at the Lake Lake, the Order was forced to send ambassadors to Novgorod and abandon aggressive plans towards Russia's lands. The victory over the Crusaders had different meaning: she put the limit attempts to impose Catholicism to Rusi. If we consider that the Mongols, distinguished by religiousness, did not interfere in the religious life of the Russians, it became clear that the Orthodox Church was particularly acutely perceived by Western danger. Alexander Nevsky performed as a defender of Orthodoxy. In his "life" for the first time, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe religious confrontation between the Orthodox Rus Catholic West was formulated. This largely made it one of the main characters of the Russian national history.
4. The effect of the Golden Horde on the development of medieval Russia.
After Batiev, the invasion of Russia became the country vassal in relation to the Golden Horde. Golden Horde in Russia was called ulus juchi. It was a powerful state created by Mongolian Khans. It covered a huge territory, including the lands of the Volga Bulgarian, Polovtsy Steppe, Crimea, Western Siberia, Ural, Khorezm. The capital of this state was a barn, or Saraj-Batu, based on Batiem near the current Astrakhan. Russian people called the inhabitants of the Golden Horde with Ordans or Tatars.
Russian lands were not part of the Golden Horde. They fell into the vassal dependence on it. In 1242, ambassadors were sent to the northeastern principalitys that demanded from Russian princes to appear to Batu with an expulsion of humility.
In 1243, Vladimir-Suzdal Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was forced to go to Saray. Battered, who met Yaroslav "with the Great Honor," appointed him with the eldest of the princes. Following Yaroslav to bow Khan, other princes reached. The Old Russian traditions of the inheritance of the principalities continued to operate in Russia, but the Ordan authorities put them under their control. Princes should have ride the Horde to confirm their rights. Each princess was given a label-special khan gram at the princely ownership. The most attractive was the label to the great Vladimirovsky Prince, as now is not Kiev, and Vladimir Prince had the right to seniority. Rusi's political center moved from the ruined Kiev to Vladimir. Here in 1299 transferred his residence Metropolitan.
The rides of Russian princes to the Golden Horde were not only accompanied by humiliation, but not rarely ended with their death. So the prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich Chernigovsky, who contacted in Kiev during the time of Batiev invasion, was executed in Horde, according to his life, due to the refusal to perform the pagan rite of purification: passing between two lights. In the Horde for the label went and Galitsky Prince Daniel Romanovich. The ride Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was unsuccessful in the distant Karakarum, he was poisoned there (1246). In the first 100 years of the Mongolian rule, more than 10 Russian princes were killed in the Handa in Horde. After the prince received a label, the Ordinsky ambassador came to his principality, in the presence of which the solemn construction of the prince was happening. The great princes of Vladimir committed a solemn rite of suicing at the Grand-Magnish table in the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir with the obligatory presence of Hanic ambassadors. This procedure has symbolized the subordination of the Russian rulers of the Hangehog.
Hordean khans, though they retained the procedures for managing the state, but constantly intervened in them. They could arbitrarily change the boundaries of the principalities, preventing the strengthening of one or another prince, ignited rivalry and spread between Russian princes. Often, Khana sent their troops to help one Russian prince, boring against the other.
The Khan governors-baskkaks were sent to Russian cities, which, relying on armed detachments, watched the population to retain humility to Mongolian Khanam, tributely paid. The most important "Great Baskak" had a residence in Vladimir. He followed the activities of the Vladimir Prince, ensured the collection of Dani and held a set of warriors in the Ordan army.
The most severe subsitude for all layers of the Russian population was annual plates of the Horde, called the exit or the Orda tribute to Russia. For example, in 1246, the Italian traveler plan's picture witnessed, as one of the Mongolian Baskakov, recalculated the inhabitants, obliging everyone annually to hand over 1 bear skin, 1 Boba skirt, 1 sable skirt, 1 Schorka skirt, 1 black fox skirt. "And anyone who will not give it," the Italian traveler added, "must be reserved to Tatars and addressed to their slave."
In the years 1257-1259, Mongolian officials were held in Russia. After that, the issue of Dani acquired a widespread and regular character. In addition to regular Dani, extraordinary payments were charged from the population of Russian principalities. Russian people needed to take, feed and contain numerous Ordane ambassadors with their suits.
The collection of Dani was accompanied by a robbery and violence, in vision of people in slavery, only the clergy was released from Dani, which the conquerors sought to use to strengthen their power.
Another heavyweight obligation imposed by the winners to the population of Russian principalities was the duty to supply warriors to the Mongol-Tatar troops, to participate in their military campaigns. In the second half of the 13th century, Russian shelves as part of the Ordane troops participated in battles against Hungary, Poland, the peoples of the North Caucasus, Byzantium.
If the Russian population expressed the inconsistency of the Ordia rule, refused to pay tribute, the Ordane Khans sent their detachments to Russia. They were brutally straightened not only with dismissed, but with all Russian lands lying on their way. Nevertheless, completely break the will of the people to the resistance of Mongols failed.
Folk masses resisted the Ordan politics of oppression. Strong unrest occurred in Novgorod Earth. In 1257, when the tribute was launched there, Novgorod residents refused to pay it. However, Alexander Nevsky, who considered it impossible an open clash with the Horde, rigidly dealt with the rebels. However, the Novgorod residents continued to resistance. They refused to "give a number", sign up when census. Their indignation caused the same circumstance that the boyars "crews ... sobo is easily, but less evil." Put smaller people in the number only in 1259. But in 1262, on all cities of the Russian Earth, in particular, in Rostov, in Suzdal, in Yaroslavl, popular uprisings were held in Ustyug, in Vladimir, and Muslims, many collectors of Danieskaki and Muslim merchants, which Baskaki passed the collection of tribute to the sputum, were killed. Frightened by the folk motion, the Ordans decided to convey a significant part of the collection of Dani with the specific Russian princes. Thus, the people's movement made the Horde go if it's not for the complete cancellation of basking, then at least its limitation.
The increase in IHA contributed to the policy of many representatives of the prince's top. In the past after the death of Alexander Nevsky in 1263, the initial arguments of his sons and relatives became the main argument of the court of Khan. The princes came to each other in the Horde and used the Ordane RATI for mutual struggle.
So in 1280, Prince Alexey Alexandrovich "Many gifts with uncle and the Grand Duke of Ordi, and everyone fill with wealth, and persuade the ulaska of everyone, and the pronunion of the great Vladimirskoye at the Tsar under his brother with his oldest, great prince Dmitry Alexandrovich, and with the Ordit Relia came to Russia. However, he did not hold the reign in his hands, Dmitry Alexandrovich managed to regain the championship. But in 1292, Andrei, together with other princes, conveyed in the Horde for Dmitry Alexandrovich, that he hides the tribute. Khan Tokhta sent his brother in Russia. "Doudenieva Raint" together with the princes "To take Vladimir, and the Church of the Volodimmers, and the vessels of the sacred all, and Suzdal, and Yuriev, and Pereslavl, Dmitrov, Moscow, Kolomna, Mozhaevsk, Affairs, and the whole land, and all the land Eusthtrash. There are a lot of such messages in the annals.
The consequences of the invasion were very heavy. First of all, the population of the country decreased dramatically. The papal ambassador of Carpini's plan, passing to Mongolia through South Russian lands in 1246, wrote: "When we drove through their land, we found countless heads and bones of dead people lying on the fields." Many people were killed, no less was enclosed into slavery. Many cities were destroyed. For example, the capital of the Ryazan Principality was now the city Pereyaslavl Ryazan. Destroyed Ryazan failed to restore. Now at its place, the shrub of the shrub is a fortune where interesting excavations were carried out, and the village of Old Ryazan. Lasting Kiev, in which there are no more than 200 houses. The so-called Ryakovetskaya fortification was found to archaeologists near Berdicheva: the city, completely destroyed in the time of Batueva invasion. There are simultaneously all residents died. Life at the site of this city was no longer revived. According to the estimates of archaeologists, from those known on excavations 74 cities of Russia, Rusi 12013 of centuries were broken, and in 14 life was not resumed, and 15 turned into a village.
Different categories of the population have losses in varying degrees. Apparently, the peasant population suffered less: in some villages in dense forests and the village enemies could not even get. The townspeople were more likely: the enemy burned the city, killed many people, took them into slavery. Many lifestyle of princes and vigornikov-professional warriors. The death of many warriors led, apparently, to a slowdown in the pace social Development. As noted above, in Northeast Russia in the second half of the 12th century, the boyars villages began to occur. The physical extermination of professional feudal warriors led to the fact that this process was stopped, and secular feudal land tenure began to occur again after the invasion.
The invasion caused a heavy blow to the development of production forces, forward in the city. The continuity in the Sernecian craft was carried out by transferring production secrets from the Father to the Son, from the master to the student. The death of many artisans and an injury in the orard of the rest cut off this chain. Therefore, after invasion, many industrial skills have lost, whole handicraft professions disappear. If, before the invasion, Russian glassmodes knew dozens and even hundreds of recipes for the manufacture of art glass; After the invasion, the glass products became coarse, and the number of applications applied has decreased many times. They learned to make glass tables and window glass. For several decades, stone construction ceased.
The international trade relations of Russia were injured. The most important trading routes were cut, the economic decline experienced many countries that were permanent trading partners of Russia (for example, Central Asia). The invasion also led to the death of many cultural values. While burning cities, the main cultural centers, the numerous monuments of writing, outstanding works of art were destroyed.
At the same time, the invasion, despite the huge damage, which it caused Russian land, could slow down, but not to change the nature of social relations in Russia. Mongols nomads could not set themselves the tasks of the inclusion of Russian land, agricultural country, in their empire. It was only about subordination, about receiving Dani. And therefore, the nature of the internal relationship remained largely not affected by the conquerors. That is why the invaders from the very beginning began to rely on the enslaved country on feudal tops, ready to serve as conquering to preserve their privileges.
As a result of the Ordane rule, the nature of the princely power has changed. Russian princes were often in the Horde and saw that Khan had a lot of power, no one had the right to move him. And in this princess seen the source of power of the Golden Horde. Returning home they tried to strengthen their power, especially since it was much easier to do it. Residents of the principalities were themselves interested in being a strong ruler who could protect them from Tatar raids.
Evening traditions gradually went on no. These political changes occurred also because the most ancient and developed cities - Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir - decline, giving up the championship of new centers - Tver, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, who became the capitals of independent principalities already under Ordahn.
Batievo invasion laid an indelible line in the history of Russia, sharing it into two epochs - to "Mostiyevas" and after him, the Domongol Rus and Russia under the domination of Mongols. It was from this time that Rus's backlog began from a number of European countries. If economic and cultural progress continued there, beautiful structures were built, cultural masterpieces were created, the era of Renaissance was created, and the Rus was lying, and for quite a long time, in ruins.
Ordane Igo in Russia played, undoubtedly, a negative role. This recognizes the vast majority of historical scientists, publicists, writers. Although in the past, and in the current centuries, opinions were expressed that foreign dominion had a positive impact on the development of Russia - the strengthening of state order there, the weakening of the princely gravestites, the establishment of the Yamsk gossip. Of course, almost two and a half century, the rule of the Ordans led, among other things, to mutual borrowings - in the farm, everyday life, language and other things.
Thus, the Ordia dominion had a great influence on all parties to Russian life. It contributed to the beginning of the economic lag of Russia from Western Europe, led to a change in the nature of power. But at the same time, the beginning of the cultural contacts and mutual enrichment of the peoples of Russia and Horde was made.
5. Conclusion
Based on the work done, the causes and factors of the fragmentation of ancient Russia were analyzed, which entailed the formation of new state centers, a review was carried out by the largest of these centers and the significance of this period in the history of Russia was considered.
This period was an important prerequisite for the formation of a single and holistic state.
Feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural outcome of the economic and political development of the early refortional society. Folding in the ancient Russian state of large land tenure - Votchin - in the conditions of the domination of the natural economy, inevitably made them quite independent production complexes, the economic ties of which were limited to the nearest county.
The process of occurrence of feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He gave the opportunity to a stronger statement in Russia of the developing system of feudal relations. From this point of view, we can talk about the historical progressiveness of this stage of Russian history, as part of the development of economics and culture.
Attachment 1
Scheme 1.
Appendix 2.
Scheme 2.
Appendix 3.
Scheme 3.
Literature used: 1. Kirillov V.V. Russian history: tutorial For universities - M.: Yurait, 2007.
2. Kulikov V.I. History of public administration in Russia: a textbook for universities - M.: Mastery, 2001.
3. Derevko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: Tutorial - M.: Prospekt, 2007.
4. Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgiev N.G., Sivokhina TA History of Russia: Tutorial - M.: Prospekt, 2001.
5. Field P.N. History of Russia - M.: AST Moscow, 2006.
6. Pavlenko N.I. History of the USSR from ancient times until 1861 - M.: Education 1989.
7. Katsva L.A. History of Russia 8-15 centuries. - M.: Miros-Argus 1995.
The Kiev state began to decay at the end of the XI century. There were many sovereign land - principalities, and their number increased. By the middle of the XII century. Formed 15 principalities, by the beginning of the XIII century. They were already about 50. The ancient Russian state disappeared. The cropping process of a large rare-conducted state was natural. Europe also experienced a strip of breakdown of early-service states, fragmentation, local wars, so that the process of education of national secular type states was developed, which still exist. We can conclude: Ancient Russia, having passed the breakdown band, could come to a similar one. Here, a national state could arise in the future, a single people could be formed. However, this did not happen. Development in Russia has gone otherwise.
A turning point in the history of ancient Russia, as in Europe, became the XIII century. But if Europe has been actively moving towards the introduction of a progressive type of development, then another problem has become before Rus. In 1237, Mongol-Tatars appeared in the Russian limits. They carried the mass death of people, destroying cities, the destruction of what was created by centuries. However, the danger was not only from the east, but also from the West. The increasing Lithuania fell into Russian lands, as well as the Swedes, Germans and Livonian knights. The fragmented ancient Rus faced the most difficult problem: how to self-sucking, how to survive? It turned out to be as if between the reserves of the East and the West. Moreover, it is characteristic: from the east, the tatar was ruin, and the West demanded the change of faith, the adoption of Catholicism. Yarl Birger, from the famous Swedish genus Folkungs launched two cross cams against North-Western Russia. In this regard, the Russian princes to save the population could go to a bow to Tatars, agreed to a heavy tribute and humiliation, but the invasion from the West resisted.
Mongol-Tatars as a tornado flashed across Russian lands, appeared in Hungary, Poland, then went to the lowering Volga, making out the crushing raids on Russian lands and collecting severe tribute. Among the Russian historians, a point of view was common that with the collapse of the Kiev state, and then the loss of independence by many principles, the story in the South-Western and Western lands, as it were, the life and life moved to the northeast, where new historical development centers arose. This is a promotional tradition, established in historiography. In fact, the story in the southwestern lands was not interrupted. She went to her way. The Galico-Volyn Principality turned out to be at first the Grand Principality of Lithuania, and then Poland, Minsk, Gomel, and then Kiev, other cities were drawn to the power of the pagan Lithuania to save from the Mongol-Tatar ruin, to preserve their type of development.
What is Lithuania of that time? In the 40s. XIII century It appeared and quickly increased in the size of the Lithuanian principality. It is known little known about him. But already in the XIV century. It united in its title three elements: Lithuania, chub, Russian lands - Rus. Then the word "Russian" switched to second place after Lithuanian - the Grand Duch of Lithuania, Russian and Romoomytsky.
During the heyday, this principality extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the borders of Poland and Hungary to the Moscow region (Mozhaisk). 9/10 territory was ancient Russian lands. It is not by chance that the opponents of the central power enhancing in Moscow fled to Lithuania. The Old Russian population of Lithuania called Russia's ruus. People considered her heiress Kiev Rus. Within the framework of Lithuania, Russia developed in accordance with his traditions (the elder ideal is traced until the second half of the XV century.). Principality had autonomy.
The political and financial situation of Russia as part of Lithuania was favorable. Cities continued to develop. Large cities received Magdeburg law. Interestingly, residents of border areas living in the zone "Risk" under the threat of the invasion of Mongol-Tatars or Muscovites received additional privileges. For example, the inhabitants of the White Church, who subjected to a raise of the Tatars, were released from the filters for nine years. Russian aristocrats enjoyed significant influence at the courtyard of the Lithuanian Grand Duke. The Grand District Lithuanian has developed as the Federation of Individual Lands and Principles. The degree of dependence on the central government was different, the forms of this dependence were determined by the circumstances of entry and to a greater or lesser extent provided to local boyars and cities of significant autonomy, the inviolability of socio-economic and political structures. There established the Western Institute of Vassalitet, which suggested the concept of freedom.
Thus, in the West, under the auspices first, the pagan, and then, from the end of the XIV century, the Catholic Lithuania continued the development of the Old Russian land on the European Way. But this territory declined, although the unifying policy of Moscow met resistance in the West, since the transition to despotism was too obvious. In these lands launched the folding of Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnic groups. In modern conditions, the historians of Ukraine and Belarus often represent this process as the initial, outgoing in the Kiev period. However, it is hardly legitimate. The folding of these peoples has turned into the XV-XVI centuries. Their self-consciousness was formed under the influence of the real socio-political situation in Lithuania, and then in the speech of compulcient, and anticatolism, antipolt sentiment. The threat of polonization and catholization of the population stimulated the awareness of the community of people on the basis of Orthodoxy. By the way, the official language of the Great Principality of Lithuanian from the XIV century. Began to Belarusian. At the same time, Western lands were named White Rus. With the adoption of Catholicism and the strengthening of Poland's influence, the position of the Ukrainian and Belarusian people worsened somewhat.
Thus, Western and South-Western lands, where the formation of Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnic groups was going, much longer existed in the context of the European tradition. There were deeper progressive roots. North-West Rus found itself in another situation. The largest center of Russian Slavs in the northwest was Novgorod. He developed relatively independently and demonstrated proximity to the European type of development, especially bright in the period of the Novgorod Republic (the end of the XI-XV centuries). In the XIV century The status of the republic received Pskov, but this republic existed not long. Novgorod was not subjected to Tatar-Mongolian invasion, although I paid tribute. If ancient Russia showed proximity to antiquity and died like the Greco-Latin world, Novgorod developed in one pace with Europe of that time and was part of it. In fact, the Novgorod Republic was an analogous to the republics of the Republic of Hanseatic Union, the republics of Italy: Venice, Genoa, Florence. Novgorod was a republic with elected senior officials (posing), with the People's Assembly (Veche), which had the rights of the highest authority, local government, organized on the principle of community, etc. The princes did not have complete state power, were invited to Novgorod only to perform certain functions as hired commander managers. They were forbidden to own land in the territory of Novgorod volosts. But the rights were big. The prince had executive functions, representing Novgorod in relations with other lands. He possessed the highest judicial authority. In the name of the prince went tribute. Similarly evolved, separating from Novgorod, and the Pskov Republic. The princes will not long delayed in the Novgorod table (the throne). For 200 from a small years - from 1095 to 1304 - about 40 people visited the Novgorod table, and some princes are not even one time. So changing the princely power occurred 58 times.
The church in Novgorod was also independent and differed in the situation from other Russian lands. In times, when Novgorod entered Kievskaya Rus, the Metropolitan of Kiev sent to the Novgorod bishop, the chapter of the Church. However, strengthened, Novgorodians and in church affairs were aligned. From 1156, Novgorod began to elect a spiritual shepherd. Interesting election procedure. Veche called three candidates, the most authoritative ministers of the Church. Their names were recorded on parchment. Postener sealing records to his print. Then these notes carried on the other side of Volkhov to the chief Sophia Cathedral, where liturgy was. After the service end, the blind or child took one of the records and the name written on it was announced. Only then the elected bishop drove to the Metropolitan in Kiev to initiate. Never, nor to the Novgorod Republic, nor after, the Orthodox Church did not know such a democratic order so that the believers themselves choose a spiritual shepherd. This order is close to the Protestant tradition.
It is curious that heresi flourished in Novgorod. Heretical teachings were a mixture of Jews with Christianity. Adherents of Yerezi promoted the Old Testament and even put it above the New Testament. Novgorod heretics denied the monastic and church hierarchy, rejected the worship of the icons, denied the trocheusity of the Divine and the divinity of Christ. Some refused to believe in the immortality of the soul. Poche often opposed the canonical Byzantine Orthodoxy. In the XIV-XV centuries. Novgorod was the source of church heresies who shocked Orthodoxy. Please note: much earlier than in the West, reform trends towards the Church and even atheistic sentiments were manifested in Novgorod. Much resembled the future European reformation. After the fall of Novgorod, the Church Cathedral of 1504 made a decision on merciless eradication of heresy. Most heretics were executed cruelly: burned in a cage, others got into imprisonment.
In the Novgorod and Pskov Republics actively was the process of forming a class of owners. In the Pskov vessel diploma, private property has been fixed and protected. Novgorod actively acquired colonies, turning into a western type of metropolitan. From the XI century The active colonization of Karelia, the movement and extensive Northern Pomerania began. Trade and commercial expeditions were equipped with Pechora and Ugra Lands. Located at the beginning of the trade routes that are important for Eastern Europe, connecting the Baltic Sea with Black and Caspian, Novgorod played a mediation role in trade.
The principles of Novgorod democracy gave the opportunity to participate in the life of the republic not only for the owners of urban palaces and estates, but also the city plebs. Evening - the People's Assembly - has widespread rights. It considered the most important issues of internal and foreign policy, invited the prince and concluded a contract agreement with him, elected the landlord made by the Office and the court, the commander, who headed the militia. It also elected a special importance in Novgorod on commercial deeds.
In conditions of pressure from both the West and from the east, the republic sought to preserve independence and its type of development. In the struggle for the independence of Novgorod, Prince Alexander Nevsky was especially famous. He spent flexible politics, making concessions to the Golden Horde and organizing resistance to the onset of Catholicism from the West. Pre-revolutionary Russia highly set the feat of A. Nevsky. This is how S. Solovyov wrote about him: "Compliance with the Russian Earth from trouble in the East, significant exploits for faith and land in the West delivered Alexander Nevsky Neval Memory in Russia." However, in Novgorod itself, the attitude towards Alexander was ambiguous. There were stable Western orientations and moods. Therefore, Alexander was valued as a skilled military leader, but condemned concessions to the Golden Horde.
The Novgorod Republic lasted almost until the end of the XV century. In 1478, she fell under the blows of the troops of the Grand Duke Moskovsky Ivan III. The desire to suppress Novgorod liberty, sympathy for Latin, was observed by Moscow from the middle of the XV century. The pressure of Moscow strengthened pro-Western moods in the Novgorod Supreme Society. In the 70s. XV century, that is, the on the eve of the fall, they expressed persistent proposals for joining Lithuania. A negative was perceived by all promotional. In May 1477, three landing were killed in the evening on charges of betraying the interests of Novgorod. At the Grand Duke Moskovsky, they tried to find assistance in the fight against them by the Boyar grouping. The chronicle explaining this, indicates that "there was no beginning, as the land stood" this. However, the Catholicism of Lithuania did not seem most salvation. As a result, Novgorod was defeated. Moscow brutally dealt with the projected representatives of the boyars, trading people. The republic went to the past. After 1478, a radical breakdown of victorious land tenure was undertaken in Novgorod, the property confiscation of property was developed. However, in order not to cause open perturbation, for some time Moscow retained the individual traditions of republican Novgorod. Direct relationships with Gansa, the Baltic, Scandinavian states remained. In the design of diplomatic acts, along with the governors of the Moscow Grand Duke, representatives of the old Novgorod - Boyar and merchant elders.
So, the last independent island has disappeared, which had a European type of development, in the territory of modern Russia. In 1510, the Pskov Republic was eliminated by Vasily III, which presented ultimatum Pskovich: to remove and submit to the Violent governors. Pskov, fastening the heart, accepted ultimatum. Three hundred of the richest families by order of Vasily III were evicted from Pskov.
Lecture 2. From Russia to Russia
^ 12) Ivan Grozny: Favorites Rada or Okrichnina?
The Board of Ivan Grozny was of great importance for Russian history, to further strengthen the Russian state and autocracy. Ivan IV policy has passed as two stages: the reforms of the 50s strengthened the autocratic power, limited by film institutions in the center and on the ground; Then the oprichnina began an attempt to establish an absolute monarchy.
The childhood of Ivan IV passed during the "Boyarsky rule" - conspiracies in the tops, urban uprisings, which loosened state power. Hopes for resolving the contradictions were associated with the beginning of the independent rule of Ivan IV, who accepted the title of king in 1547. At the king, the "elected glad" (Prince Kurbsky, Alexey Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan Ivan IV Sylvester), with the help of which Ivan IV tried to implement the ideas of European absolutism in Russia, to submit his power as a expressive of public interest.
In 1549, Ivan IV gathers the first in the history of our country of the Zemstvo Cathedral, the meeting of representatives from all classes, except for the landlord peasants and the Halls, on which he made a reform program. The government begins to develop a new judiciary, since the previous 1497 is already outdated. The new plant was adopted in 1550. Boyar Duma. The lawyer strengthened the centralization of state management by increasing the role of central bodies - orders and a sharp limitation of the governor's power, determined the procedure for the passage of administrative, judicial and property cases in the structures of state power. Posted by elected from the people: Old builders, Sotski participating in court, who register the vicar boyars and vague, than a strong blow to the court of alliance, boyars. The privileges of large secular and spiritual feudalities were limited. The Fate regulated the position of the peasants. By increasing the fee for the care of Mr. in Yuriev Day ("Elderly"), the Faudskit significantly strengthened the serfdom. In July 1550, locality was canceled (the occupation of military positions, depending on the knowledge of the genus) between children boyar and nobles.
The adoption of the Faith marked the beginning of a number of reforms. In 1556, a system of feedings was eliminated, the boyars began to receive money salary from the state for their service, that is, it became the main source of means to exist. In the same year, the "service code", which equalized the responsibilities of the Military Service of the Boyar and the Nobility. Each landowner was prescribed to set one equestrian warrior from every hundred and four quarters of his land and a walking warrior from every incomplete hundred of the Earth. According to "Casting", in a militarion, equivalent to the estates.
Completes the formation of the Russian army. In the early 50s of the 20th century. A shooting army was created, originally consisted of three thousand people, and by the end of the XVI century. - 20 thousand Streltsov. Artillery was highlighted in a separate genus of troops and quickly began to grow quantitatively. By the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, Russian artillery was in service 2 thousand guns. The principle of the acquisition of the regiments of Streltsov was the voluntary desire for any free man. The role of artillery has increased.
The order reform was carried out in the second half of the 50s. XVI century. In the course of it, the creation of a slender system of executive power and government consisting of 22 orders was completed. The order reform had a consequence of an increase in the number of bureaucracy, covering its total influence of all spheres of society.
In the middle of the XVI century. The highest state body arises - the Zemstvo Cathedral, convened to solve the most important issues. The participation of the boyars, nobles, clergy and merchants, testified to the transformation of the state into the estate-representative monarchy. This was reflected in the development of land in the municipal government. In 1555-1556 Eliminates feeding system. Instead of governors, Zemskiy elders appear selected from prosperous landing people and peasants.
At the same years, church reform was carried out. In church cathedrals, the communional canonization of saints was held, which should symbolize the association of the Russian people into a single state. In 1551, the king was released on the "Stallow Cathedral" demanding the secularization of church lands (alienation of them in favor of the state). It was not possible to spend it, but the king forced the Cathedral to take the following solutions:
The king was unsubscribed by the land captured by the Church from the nobles and the peasants in the king's childhood, as well as primary, data by boyars in the monasteries on the soul member;
The church was forbidden to increase their land ownership without the permission of the king;
Established uniformity in religious rites, responsibility for their violation, the election of archimandritis and igumen.
The reform weakened the independence of the church from the state and strengthened its corporate organization.
Failures in the foreign policy of the early 60s. XVI in. Created by Ivan IV the illusion of total boyars and sabotage of his events. This encourages Grozny to introduce a new procedure for managing the state in the country, which was aimed at the complete destruction of any opposition to autocracy.
Ivan Grozny introduced an oprichnin, having completed on December 3, 1564 a kind of state coup. According to a new order, the central control was divided into oprichny and Zemsky yards. Lands of the country also
shared on scramble and land. The land remained on the land, and the king is fully ordered. The boyars and nobles, not recorded in the Ochrichnina, moved to the ground, receiving new estates there. "Official serunens" were placed on their selected land. Optial boyars were deprived of birth victory. Such measures have inflicted a strong blow to the economic and political relics of the "great" boyars. The main measure was the creation of an oprich troops (1 thousand people) - the personal guard of the king. Ochrinchnikov who became medium-rate nobles were attached to punitive functions: "gnaw" trains and "sweep" from the state of treason (a sign of the Okrichnik - a dog's head and broom at the saddle of the horse) - that is, to carry out surveillance and reprisals throughout the country. Secret cheer, torture, mass executions, the destruction of the estates, the plundering of the property of the Oplia boyars, punitive expeditions against cities and counties became commonplace.
The top of the Okrichnina became a campaign to Novgorod, which for some reason was suspected in the mouse. On the way, Tver, Torzhok, other cities and villages were broken. The Novgorod himself was subjected to an unprecedented 40-day looting of a ospreational army. Torture and executed up to 10 thousand people.
The introduction of Oprichnina did not contribute to military successes and in 1572 it was canceled. However, some elements of Okrichnin continued to exist before the death of Ivan the Terrible. During his reign, accompanied by the exacerbation of the struggle in society, serious steps were taken to strengthen the Russian state and autocracy.
The result of the Okrichnina became huge human sacrifices, destruction the estate monarchy. The boyars opposition was already broken and mostly physically exterminated. The class of owners was destroyed. Setting relationships. Oprichnina exhausted the economy and caused the economic crisis of 70-80 years., Violation of economic ties, the launch of villages and cities, hunger and poverty. The organization and acquisition of the placed troops were violated. In society there are universal discontent.
