Even the ancient Greeks noticed that if you rub an ancient petrified wood resin (amber) on a piece of woolen fabric, then it will attract many objects: fluffs, straws, fur hairs, etc. In the 17th century, this process was studied in more detail, and modern children still love experiments with electrified bodies.

• History of the study of the phenomena of electrification
• Different types of charges ("+" and "-")
• Where is the phenomenon of electrification used?

History of the study of the phenomena of electrification

At the beginning of the 17th century, such phenomena of the interaction of bodies were called electric, since in ancient Greek amber sounded like an “electron”. There was an understanding that after rubbing the bodies, which begin to attract other objects, acquire an electric charge or become electrified. When rubbing an ebonite stick on cloth, not only ebonite, but also fabric will attract pieces of paper. It became clear that both objects in a pair are mutually electrified.

A variety of pairs of objects can demonstrate the interaction of electrified bodies: silk fabric and a glass stick, paper and a plexiglass plate, fur or cloth and ebonite stick (vulcanized rubber with sulfur).

Then it was found that an electric charge can flow from one object to another. As soon as they touch each other, part of the charge will be on an uncharged object, which will also begin to attract fibers or pieces of paper to itself.

If you rub a glass stick on a paper sheet, and immediately bring it to small pieces of paper, then the latter will begin to attract to the glass. A thin stream of water will also behave.

Different types of charges ("+" and "-")

Absolutely all electrified bodies possess the property of attracting objects to themselves. Moreover, by their attraction it is impossible to determine which charge acquired, for example, ebonite, worn on fur, and which glass rod, worn on silk, because both electrified objects as a result attract pieces of paper equally to themselves. Does this mean that objects of different materials accumulate the same charges?

In order to conduct laboratory observation of the interaction of electrified bodies, you need to take a pair of ebonite sticks and electrify them with a fur. Then hang one stick at the center of gravity and bring the second stick closer to it. You may notice that now the sticks will repel. Exactly the same result will be obtained if instead of ebonite take glass sticks, and instead of silk fur. But if you bring an electrified glass wand to an electrified ebonite wand, they will begin to attract each other. That is, it is obvious that electrified objects will mutually attract or repel. How to explain the interaction of electrified bodies in this case?

Obviously, during electrification, an ebonite stick has a different charge than a glass one, which is confirmed by experiments.

At one time, it was agreed to call the electric charge of the rubbed silk glass stick positive, and the charge shabby the ebony stick fur negative. Part of the bodies is electrified positively, like a glass rod, and the other part of bodies is electrified negatively, like ebonite. Positive   the charge is indicated by the sign " + ", a negative   - the sign " — ».

If various electrified objects (plastic, rubber, etc.) are brought to an electrified ebonite wand, then some will repel ebonite, and others will attract. If the ebonite and another object are repelled, then the latter has the same negative charge, and if the attraction of the object and ebonite is observed, then the object has a positive charge. That is, the following is obvious:

• if bodies have the same charge, then they repel;
• if bodies have different charges, then they are attracted.

Video about the interaction of electrified bodies:

Bodies can be electrified not only by friction. An object can receive a charge if it touches another charged object. You can make a sleeve from metal foil and hang it on a silk thread. If you bring electrified ebonite to the sleeve, then the sleeve will initially attract to it, but immediately push off from the wand. That is, when you touch the hard rubber, the sleeve received a portion of the negative charge from it. This can be additionally checked if you now bring a glass rod worn on silk to a negatively charged sleeve - the sleeve will immediately attract to the glass with the opposite charge.

Such experiments clearly demonstrate that the object is electrified, that is, it has an excess electric charge. This phenomenon is based on the work of the simplest device - an electroscope, which makes it possible to observe the presence of a charge. Using an electroscope, one can not only determine the presence of an electric charge, but also approximately determine its value.

The figure below shows the simplest school electroscope (a device for detecting and measuring electric charge), in which a metal rod with petals is mounted on a plastic axis, and all this is in a metal case, which has glazing on both sides. If you bring a charged ebonite stick to an uncharged electroscope, then the petals of the device will disperse. If you bring another body with a charge of the same sign to it, then the petals of the electroscope will disperse even more. But if you bring an object with an opposite charge to it, then the angle between the leaves will become smaller.

Thus, using an electroscope, you can understand what type of charge carries a particular body. By the degree of deviation of the petals of the electroscope, one can assess whether its charge has become more or less, because the more the charge transferred to the device, the more its petals diverge. That is, the electroscope is more electrified.

Where is the phenomenon of electrification used?

The principle of mutual electrification of bodies during touch is used in the work:

copy machines - photocopiers;
  electric filters that catch dust and smoke from the air;
  when painting objects by spraying, small particles of paint are also electrified, as a result of which they are attached to the surface to be painted more firmly and evenly.

Have you carried out experiments with electrified bodies? Share your opinion on the interaction of electrified bodies in the comments.

According to classical physics, in the world known to us, there is a constant interaction of bodies, particles with each other. Even if we observe objects at rest, this does not mean that nothing is happening. It is thanks to the holding forces between molecules, atoms and elementary particles that you can see an object in the form of accessible and understandable matter of the physical world.

The interaction of bodies in nature and life

As we know from our own experience, when you fall on something, fight, encounter something, it turns out to be unpleasant and painful. You push the car or a gaping passer crashes into you. In one way or another, you are interacting with the outside world. In physics, this phenomenon has been defined as the "interaction of bodies." Let us consider in detail what types of modern classical science divides them.

Types of body interaction

In nature, there are four types of interaction between bodies. The first, known to all, is the gravitational interaction of bodies. The mass of bodies is decisive in how strong gravity is. It must be large enough for us to notice. Otherwise, the observation and registration of this type of interaction is quite difficult. Cosmos is the place where the forces of gravity are quite possible to observe on the example of cosmic bodies with a huge mass.

The relationship between gravity and body weight

Directly, the interaction energy of bodies is directly proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This is according to the definition of modern science.

  The attraction of you and all objects on our planet is due to the fact that there is a force of interaction between two bodies with mass. Therefore, an object thrown up is attracted back to the surface of the Earth. The planet is massive enough, so the force of action is palpable. Gravity causes the interaction of bodies. The mass of bodies enables its manifestation and registration.

The nature of gravity is not clear

The nature of this phenomenon today causes a lot of controversy and assumptions, in addition to actual observation and the apparent relationship between mass and attraction, the force that causes gravity has not been identified. Although today there are a number of experiments related to the detection of gravitational waves in outer space. A more accurate assumption was made by Albert Einstein.

He formulated the hypothesis that gravitational force is a product of the curvature of space-time tissue by the bodies located in it.

  Subsequently, when space is replaced by matter, it seeks to restore its volume. Einstein suggested that there is an inverse proportion between the strength and density of matter.

An example of a clear demonstration of this dependence is black holes, which have an inconceivable density of matter and gravity, which can attract not only cosmic bodies, but also light.

Due to the influence of the nature of gravity, the force of interaction between bodies ensures the existence of planets, stars and other space objects. In addition, the rotation of some objects around others is present for the same reason.

Electromagnetic forces and progress

The electromagnetic interaction of bodies is somewhat reminiscent of gravitational, but much stronger. The interaction of positively and negatively charged particles is the reason for its existence. Actually, this causes the appearance of an electromagnetic field.

  It is generated by the body (s) or is absorbed or causes the interaction of charged bodies. This process plays a very important role in the biological activity of a living cell and the redistribution of substances in it.

In addition, a good example of the electromagnetic manifestation of forces is the usual electric current, the magnetic field of the planet. Mankind uses this force extensively for data transmission. These are mobile communications, television, GPRS and much more.

In mechanics, this is manifested in the form of elasticity, friction. A vivid experiment demonstrating the presence of this force is known to everyone from the school physics course. This is rubbing silk ebony shelves. Particles with a negative charge arising on the surface provide attraction of light objects. A daily example is a comb and hair. After several movements of plastic through the hair, an attraction arises between them.

It is worth mentioning the compass and the magnetic field of the Earth. The arrow is magnetized and has ends with positively and negatively charged particles, as a result, reacts to the magnetic field of the planet. It rotates with its "positive" end in the direction of negative particles and vice versa.

Small size, but huge power

As for the strong interaction, its specificity somewhat resembles the electromagnetic form of forces. The reason for this is the presence of positive and negatively charged elements. Like electromagnetic force, the presence of opposite charges leads to the interaction of bodies. The mass of bodies and the distance between them are very small. This is an area of \u200b\u200bthe subatomic world where such objects are called particles.

These forces act in the region of the atomic nucleus and provide a bond between protons, electrons, baryons, and other elementary particles. Against the background of their size, in comparison with large objects, the interaction of charged bodies is much stronger than with the electromagnetic type of force.

Weak forces and radioactivity

The weak type of interaction is directly related to the decay of unstable particles and is accompanied by the release of various types of radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma particles. As a rule, substances and materials with similar characteristics are called radioactive.

This type of force is called weak due to the fact that it is weaker than the electromagnetic and strong type of interaction. However, it is more powerful than gravitational interaction. The distances in this process between the particles are very small, of the order of 2 · 10 −18 meters.

The fact of detecting strength and defining it as a fundamental one has occurred quite recently.

  With the discovery in 1896 of Henri Becquerel of the phenomenon of the radioactivity of substances, in particular uranium salts, the foundation was laid for the study of this type of interaction of forces.

Four forces created the universe

The whole universe exists thanks to four fundamental forces discovered by modern science. They spawned space, galaxies, planets, stars, and various processes in the form in which we observe this. At this stage, the definition of fundamental forces in nature is considered complete, but perhaps in time we will learn about the presence of new forces, and knowledge of the nature of the universe will be one step closer to us.

Inertia.

Observations and Experiments showthat the speed of the body itself cannot change.

Soccer ball lies on the field. Kicking a footballer sets him in motion. But the ball itself will not change its speed and will not begin to move until other bodies act on it. A bullet inserted into the barrel of a gun will not fly out until it is pushed out by powder gases.

Thus, both the ball and the bullet do not have their speed until other bodies act on them.

A soccer ball rolling on the ground stops due to friction on the ground.

The body reduces its speed and stops not by itself, but under the influence of other bodies. Under the influence of another body, a change in the direction of speed also occurs.

A tennis ball changes direction after hitting a racket. The puck after hitting a hockey stick also changes direction. The direction of movement of the gas molecule changes when it is struck with another molecule or with the walls of the vessel.

This means that a change in the speed of the body (magnitude and direction) occurs as a result of the action of another body on it.

Let's do the experience. We set the board obliquely on the table. Pour a pile of sand on the table, at a short distance from the end of the board. Place the trolley on an inclined board. The trolley, having rolled down from an inclined board, stops quickly, hitting sand. The speed of the cart decreases very quickly. Her movement is uneven.

Align the sand and let go of the trolley again from the same height. Now the trolley will go a greater distance on the table before stopping. Its speed changes more slowly, and the movement becomes closer to uniform.

If you completely remove the sand from the path of the cart, the only obstacle to its movement will be friction on the table. The cart to the stop is even slower, and it will travel more than the first and second times.

So, the smaller the effect of another body on the cart, the longer the speed of its movement is maintained and the closer it is to uniform.

How will the body move if other bodies do not act at all? How can this be established from experience? Thorough experiments on the study of the motion of bodies were first carried out by G. Galileo. They made it possible to establish that if other bodies do not act on the body, then it is either at rest, or moves rectilinearly, and uniformly with respect to the Earth.

The phenomenon of maintaining the speed of a body in the absence of action of other bodies on it is called inertia.

Inertia - from Latin inertia - immobility, inaction.

Thus, the movement of the body in the absence of the action of another body on it is called inertial motion.

For example, a bullet flying out of a gun would fly at the same speed if it hadn’t been affected by another body - air (or rather, the molecules of the gases that are in it.). As a result, the bullet speed decreases. The cyclist, stopping pedaling, continues to move. He would be able to maintain the speed of his movement, if the friction force did not act on him.

So, if other bodies do not act as a body, then it moves at a constant speed.

Phone tel.

You already know that with uneven movement, the speed of the body changes over time. The change in body speed occurs under the influence of another body.

Let's do the experience. We attach an elastic plate to the trolley. Then we bend it and tie it with a thread. The cart relative to the table is at rest. Will the trolley move if the elastic plate straightens?

To do this, we will burn the thread. The plate will straighten. The cart will remain in the same place.

Then, next to the bent plate, we put another one of the same trolley. Press the thread again. After that, both carts move relative to the table. They are moving in different directions.

To change the speed of the cart, a second body was needed. Experience has shown that the speed of a body changes only as a result of the action of another body (a second trolley) on it. In our experience, we observed that the second trolley also came into motion. Both began to move relative to the table.

Carts act on each other, i.e. they interact. This means that the action of one body on another cannot be one-sided, both bodies act on each other, that is, they interact.

We considered the simplest case of the interaction of two bodies. Both bodies (carts) before interaction were at rest relative to each other, and relative to the table.

For example, the bullet was also at rest relative to the gun before firing. When interacting (during a shot), the bullet and the gun move in different directions. It turns out the phenomenon of bestowal.

If a person sitting in a boat pushes another boat away from him, then interaction occurs. Both boats set in motion.

If a person jumps from a boat to the shore, then the boat departs in the direction opposite to the jump. The man acted on the boat. In turn, the boat acts on a person. It acquires speed, which is directed to the shore.

So, as a result of the interaction, both bodies can change their speed.

Body mass. Unit of mass.

When two bodies interact, the speeds of the first and second bodies always change.

After interaction, one body acquires a speed that can significantly differ from the speed of another body. For example, after a shot from a bow, the speed of the arrow is much greater than the speed that the bow string acquires after interaction.

Why it happens? We will carry out the experiment described in paragraph 18. Only now, let's take carts of different sizes. After the thread is burned, the carts travel at different speeds. The cart, which moves slower after interaction, is called more massive. She has more mass. The cart, which after interaction moves at a higher speed, has less mass. So, the carts have different weights.

The speeds that the carts acquired as a result of the interaction can be measured. At these speeds, the masses of the interacting bogies are compared.

Example. The speeds of the carts before interaction are zero. After the interaction, the speed of one trolley became equal to 10 m / s, and the speed of the other 20 m / s. Since the speed acquired by the second trolley is 2 times the speed of the first, then its mass is 2 times less than the mass of the first trolley.

If, after the interaction, the speeds of the initially resting carts are the same, then their masses are the same. So, in the experiment depicted in Figure 42, after interaction, the trolleys travel at equal speeds. Consequently, their masses were the same. If after interaction the bodies acquired different speeds, then their masses are different.

How many times the speed of the first body is greater (less) than the speed of the second body, so many times the mass of the first body is less (more) than the mass of the second.

The less the body’s speed changes during the interaction, the more mass it has. Such a body is called more inert.

And vice versa, the more the body’s speed changes during interaction, the less mass it has, the less it is inert.

This means that all bodies are characterized by the property of changing their speed differently during interaction. This property is called inertia.

Body mass is a physical quantity that characterizes its inertness.

You should know that any body: Earth, man, book, etc. - has a mass.

The mass is indicated by the letter m. For a unit of mass in SI, a kilogram (1 kg) is taken.

A kilogram is the mass of the standard. The standard is made of an alloy of two metals: platinum and iridium. The international standard kilogram is stored in Sevres (near Paris). From the international standard more than 40 exact copies were sent, sent to different countries. One of the copies of the international standard is located in our country, at the Institute of Metrology. D. I. Mendeleev in St. Petersburg.

In practice, other units of mass are also used: ton (t), gram (g), milligram (mg).

In the future, when studying physics, the concept of mass will be revealed more deeply.

Measurement of body weight on the scales.

In order to measure body weight, the method described in paragraph 19 can be used.

Comparing the speeds acquired by the bodies during the interaction, it is determined how many times the mass of one body is greater (or less) than the mass of another. It is possible to measure body mass in this way if the mass of one of the interacting bodies is known. In this way, the masses of celestial bodies, as well as molecules and atoms, are determined in science.

In practice, body weight can be found using weights. Scales come in various types: training, medical, analytical, pharmacy, electronic, etc.

Consider training scales. The main part of such a balance is the rocker. An arrow is attached to the middle of the rocker - a pointer that moves to the right or left. Cups are suspended from the ends of the beam. Under what condition will the balance be in equilibrium?

Place the carts used in the experiment on the weighing plates (see § 18). since the carts acquired the same speeds during the interaction, we found out that their masses are the same. Consequently, the balance will be in balance. This means that the masses of bodies lying on the scales are equal to each other.

Now on one cup of scales, we place the body, the mass of which must be known. We will put weights on the other, whose masses are known, until the balance is in equilibrium. Therefore, the mass of the weighed body will be equal to the total mass of weights.

When weighing, a special set of weights is used.

Different scales are designed to weigh different bodies, both very heavy and very light. So, for example, using a carriage scale, you can determine the mass of a carriage from 50 tons to 150 tons. A mosquito mass of 1 mg can be found using an analytical balance.

Body interaction

“The key to all science is the question mark”

Honore de Balzac

By this, Balzac wanted to say that without asking questions, one cannot make any discovery. In the framework of the previous topic, the phenomenon of inertia was discussed. Inertia is the phenomenon of maintaining the speed of the body in the absence of the action of other bodies on it. The considered examples showed that a change in the speed of the body can occur. only under the influence of another body. Every body has inertia - a property characterized by "responsiveness" to the impact of other bodies.   Consider a simple example: a ball thrown into a wall bounces off of it. Why?   It's obvious that upon impact, the ball had an impact on the wall, and the wall, in turn, had an effect on the ball.   Otherwise, the change in ball speed cannot be explained. If there is any doubt that the wall has such an effect, then you can go up to it and push it with all your strength. In this case, you can even fly off the wall. It is on the same principle that such an exercise as push-ups works.

That is, pushing the floor, it has a response to the push-up. Why, then, neither the floor nor the wall change their speed?   The fact is that these bodies are too inert, and a person is not able to exert a strong enough influence on them to set them in motion. If you jump from a fixed boat, the boat will begin to move in the opposite direction to the jump.

Why?   Because, pushing off, there was an impact on the boat, and the boat acted on the jumper. The bullet in the gun rests before the shot, as does the gun itself. But as soon as the shot is made, the person feels recoil is the movement of a gun in the opposite direction than the direction of motion of the bullet.   Similarly, after the nucleus leaves the cannon, the cannon rolls back a bit. Another example is the collision of billiard balls.

One ball is at rest, while the other moves at a certain speed. After the collision, the ball that was resting acquires speed. So, the first ball affected him. But this ball will change its speed, both modulo and in direction. This means that the ball that was resting also affected the moving ball.

All these examples suggest that the action of the first body on the second causes the opposite effect of the second body on the first.   In other words, action cannot be one-sided. The bodies act on each other, that is, interact.   So always happens with all bodiesIt doesn’t matter whether these bodies are large or not, and it doesn’t matter what condition they are in. Say, the smallest particles (that is, molecules) of a gas, being in a vessel, constantly collide with each other, exerting an effect on each other. They also act on the walls of the vessel, causing a reaction. At the same time, such huge objects as the Earth and the Moon also interact. The moon rotates around the earth as a result of the action of the earth on the moon. But the moon also acts on the Earth, that is, there is mutual attraction between the moon and the earth.

Main conclusions:

– Act   cannot be one-sided.

- The bodies interact, that is, have an effect each other.

– Only as a result of interaction can both bodies change their speed.

Phone tel.

Experience shows that with the approach of bodies (or systems of bodies), the nature of their behavior changes. Since these changes are reciprocal, they say that bodies interact with each other. When breeding bodies over very large distances (at infinity), all interactions known to date disappear.

Galliley was the first to give the correct answer to the question of what motion is characteristic of free (i.e., non-interacting bodies). Contrary to the then existing view that free bodies “tend” to a state of rest (

Inertial reference systems.

In the framework of the formal mathematical approach implemented in kinematics, Galileo’s statement seems meaningless, since uniform motion in one reference frame can be accelerated in another, which is “no worse” than the original one. The presence of interaction allows us to identify a special class of reference systems in which free bodies move without acceleration (in these systems, most of the laws of nature have the simplest form). Such systems are called inertial.

All inertial systems are equivalent to each other, in any of them the laws of mechanics are manifested equally. This property was also noted by Galileo in the principle of relativity formulated by him: it is impossible to establish by any mechanical experience in a closed (i.e. not communicating with the outside world) reference frame whether it is at rest or is moving uniformly. Any reference frame uniformly moving relative to inertial is also inertial.

There is a fundamental difference between inertial and non-inertial reference systems: an observer in a closed system is able to establish the fact of movement with acceleration of the latter, “without looking out” (for example, when an airplane accelerates, passengers feel that they are “pressed” into seats). It will be shown below that in non-inertial systems the geometry of space ceases to be Euclidean.

Newton's laws as the basis of classical mechanics.

The three laws of motion formulated by I. Newton in principle make it possible to solve the main problem of mechanics, i.e. from the known initial position and speed of the body to determine its position and speed at an arbitrary point in time.

Newton's first law postulates the existence of inertial reference systems.

Newton’s second law states that in inertial systems the acceleration of a body is proportional to the applied force, a physical quantity, which is a quantitative measure of interaction. The force characterizing the interaction of bodies can be determined, for example, from the deformation of an elastic body, which is additionally introduced into the system so that the interaction with it completely compensates for the initial one. The proportionality coefficient between force and acceleration is called body weight:

Under the action of the same forces, bodies with a larger mass acquire smaller accelerations. Massive bodies during interaction to a lesser extent change their speeds, “trying to maintain a natural motion by inertia”. It is sometimes said that mass is a measure of the inertia of bodies (Fig. 4_1).

The classical properties of mass include 1) its positivity (bodies acquire accelerations in the direction of the applied forces), 2) additivity (body mass is equal to the sum of the masses of its parts), 3) independence of the mass from the nature of the movement (e.g., from speed).

The third law states that the interactions of both objects experience the action of forces, and these forces are equal in magnitude and oppositely directed.

Types of fundamental interactions. Attempts to classify interactions have led to the idea of \u200b\u200bisolating a minimal set of fundamental interactions with which one can explain all the observed phenomena. With the development of natural science, this set has changed. In the course of experimental studies, new natural phenomena were periodically discovered that did not fit into the accepted fundamental set, which led to its expansion (for example, the discovery of the structure of the nucleus required the introduction of nuclear forces). Theoretical comprehension, which as a whole tends to a single, maximally economical description of the observed diversity, has repeatedly led to “great unions” of seemingly completely dissimilar natural phenomena (Newton realized that the fall of the apple and the movement of planets around the Sun are the results of manifestations of gravitational interactions, Einstein established a unified nature of electrical and magnetic interactions, Butlerov denied allegations about the different nature of organic and inorganic substances).

At present, a set of four types of fundamental interactions is accepted: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak nuclear. All the rest, known today, can be reduced to a superposition of the above.

Gravitational interactions are due to the presence of mass in bodies and are the weakest of the fundamental set. They dominate at distances of cosmic scales (in the mega-world).

Electromagnetic interactions are due to the specific property of a number of elementary particles, called an electric charge. They play a dominant role in the macro world and the microworld up to distances exceeding the characteristic sizes of atomic nuclei.

Nuclear interactions play a dominant role in nuclear processes and appear only at distances comparable to the size of the nucleus, where the classical description is obviously not applicable.

Nowadays, reasoning about the biofield has become very popular, with the help of which a number of not very reliably established experimentally related natural phenomena associated with biological objects are “explained”. Serious attitude to the concept of biofield depends on what specific meaning. Invested in this term. If the concept of a biofield is used to describe interactions involving biological objects, which are reduced to four fundamental ones, this approach does not raise fundamental objections, although the introduction of a new concept to describe “old” phenomena contradicts the generally accepted tendency in science to minimize the theoretical description. If the biofield is understood as a new type of fundamental interactions manifesting itself at the macroscopic level (the existence of which a priori is obviously pointless to deny), then such far-reaching conclusions require very serious theoretical and experimental justifications made in the language and methods of modern science, which have not been presented to date.

Newton's laws and the main task of mechanics.

To solve the main problem of mechanics (determining the position of a body at an arbitrary moment of time from a known initial position and velocity), it suffices to find the acceleration of the body as a function of time a (t). This problem is solved by Newton's laws (1) under the condition of known forces. In the general case, the forces can depend on the time, position and speed of the body:

(2) F \u003d F (r, v, t),

those. To find the acceleration of the body, it is necessary to know its position and speed. The described situation in mathematics is called a second-order differential equation:

In mathematics, it is shown that the problem (3-4) in the presence of two initial conditions (position and speed at the initial moment of time) always has a solution and, moreover, the only one. T.O. the main task of mechanics in principle always has a solution, but it is often very difficult to find it.

Laplace determinism. The German mathematician Laplace applied a similar theorem on the existence and uniqueness of a solution to a problem of type (3-4) for a system of a finite number of equations to describe the motion of all particles of the real world interacting with each other and came to the conclusion that it is possible in principle to calculate the position of all bodies at any time . Obviously, this meant the possibility of an unambiguous predicted future (at least in principle) and complete determinism (predetermination) of our world. The statement made, which is more of a philosophical rather than naturally scientific character, is called Laplace determinism. If desired, one could draw very far-reaching philosophical and social conclusions from it about the impossibility of influencing a predetermined course of events. The fallacy of this teaching was that the atoms or elementary particles (“material points” of which real bodies are composed) do not actually obey the classical law of motion (3), which is true only for macroscopic objects (i.e., having sufficiently large masses and size). The description of the time motion of microscopic objects, which are atoms and molecules that make up macroscopic bodies, correct from the point of view of modern physics, is given by the equations of quantum mechanics, which allow one to determine only the probability of a particle being at a given point, but which fundamentally does not make it possible to calculate the trajectories of motion for subsequent time instants.